We intend to adapt OpenStax Psychology and make it clinically relevant.
The textbook will contain more clinical scenarios and applications, psychological basis of psychiatric disorders, therapies, clinical scales and psychotherapeutic techniques will be the focus of our book.
We Welcome conributors.
Welcome to Psychology, an OpenStax resource. This textbook was written
to increase student access to high-quality learning materials,
maintaining highest standards of academic rigor at little to no cost.
Clinically Oriented Psychology, at the time of writting,
is a project do transform OpenStax Psychology into book that is suitable for psychiatrists.
It focuses on the clinical relevance of concepts and their clinical applications.
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Psychology is designed to meet scope and sequence requirements for the
single-semester introduction to psychology course. The book offers a
comprehensive treatment of core concepts, grounded in both classic
studies and current and emerging research. The text also includes
coverage of the DSM-5 in examinations of psychological disorders.
Psychology incorporates discussions that reflect the diversity within
the discipline, as well as the diversity of cultures and communities
across the globe.
This book is designed to make psychology, as a discipline, interesting
and accessible to students research and examples that represent and
include the various sociocultural backgrounds of the many students who
take this course. The result is a book that covers the breadth of
psychology topics with variety and depth that promote student
engagement. The organization and pedagogical features were developed and
vetted with feedback from psychology educators dedicated to the project.
Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology
Chapter 2: Psychological Research
Chapter 3: Biopsychology
Chapter 4: States of Consciousness
Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception
Chapter 6: Learning
Chapter 7: Thinking and Intelligence
Chapter 8: Memory
Chapter 9: Lifespan Development
Chapter 10: Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 11: Personality
Chapter 12: Social Psychology
Chapter 13: Industrial-Organizational Psychology
Chapter 14: Stress, Lifestyle, and Health
Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders
Chapter 16: Therapy and Treatment {: data-bullet-style=“bullet”}
Throughout Psychology, you will find features that draw the students
into psychological inquiry by taking selected topics a step further.
Everyday Connection features tie psychological topics to everyday
issues and behaviors that students encounter in their lives and the
world. Topics include the validity of scores on college entrance
exams, advertising and associative learning, and cognitive mapping.
What Do You Think? features provide research-based information
and ask students their views on controversial issues. Topics include
“Brain Dead and on Life Support,” “Hooters and BFOQ Laws,” and
“Intellectually Disabled Criminals and Capital Punishment.”
Dig Deeper features discuss one specific aspect of a topic in
greater depth so students can dig more deeply into the concept.
Examples include a discussion on the distinction between evolutionary
psychology and behavioral genetics, an analysis of the increasing
prevalence rate of ADHD, and a presentation of research on strategies
for coping with prejudice and discrimination.
Connect the Concepts features revisit a concept learned in
another chapter, expanding upon it within a different context.
Features include “Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Expression of
Emotions,” “Tweens, Teens, and Social Norms,” and “Conditioning and
OCD.”
Our art program is designed to enhance students’ understanding of
psychological concepts through simple, effective graphs, diagrams, and
photographs. Psychology also incorporates links to relevant
interactive exercises and animations that help bring topics to life.
Selected assessment items touch directly on students’ lives.
Link to Learning features direct students to online interactive
exercises and animations that add a fuller context to core content
and provide an opportunity for application.
Personal Application Questions engage students in topics at a
personal level to encourage reflection and promote discussion.
We’ve compiled additional resources for both students and instructors,
including Getting Started Guides, an instructor solution guide, a test
bank, and PowerPoint slides. Instructor resources require a verified
instructor account, which you can apply for when you log in or create
your account on openstax.org. Take advantage of these resources to
supplement your OpenStax book.
OpenStax Partners are our allies in the mission to make high-quality
learning materials affordable and accessible to students and instructors
everywhere. Their tools integrate seamlessly with our OpenStax titles at
a low cost. To access the partner resources for your text, visit your
book page on openstax.org.
Rose M. Spielman (Content Lead)* * * {: data-type=“newline”}
Dr. Rose Spielman has been teaching psychology and working as a licensed
clinical psychologist for 20 years. Her academic career has included
positions at Quinnipiac University, Housatonic Community College, and
Goodwin College. As a licensed clinical psychologist, educator, and
volunteer director, Rose is able to connect with people from diverse
backgrounds and facilitate treatment, advocacy, and education. In her
years of work as a teacher, therapist, and administrator, she has helped
thousands of students and clients and taught them to advocate for
themselves and move their lives forward to become more productive
citizens and family members.
Kathryn Dumper, Bainbridge State College* * * {: data-type=“newline”}
William Jenkins, Mercer University* * * {: data-type=“newline”}
Arlene Lacombe, Saint Joseph’s University* * * {:
data-type=“newline”}
Marilyn Lovett, Livingstone College* * * {: data-type=“newline”}
Robert Stennett, University of Georgia* * * {: data-type=“newline”}
Jennifer Stevenson, Ursinus College* * * {: data-type=“newline”}
Eric Weiser, Curry College* * * {: data-type=“newline”}
Valjean Whitlow, American Public University
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Clive Wearing is an accomplished musician who lost his ability to form
new memories when he became sick at the age of 46. While he can remember
how to play the piano perfectly, he cannot remember what he ate for
breakfast just an hour ago (Sacks, 2007). James Wannerton experiences a
taste sensation that is associated with the sound of words. His former
girlfriend’s name tastes like rhubarb (Mundasad, 2013). John Nash is a
brilliant mathematician and Nobel Prize winner. However, while he was a
professor at MIT, he would tell people that the New York Times
contained coded messages from extraterrestrial beings that were intended
for him. He also began to hear voices and became suspicious of the
people around him. Soon thereafter, Nash was diagnosed with
schizophrenia and admitted to a state-run mental institution (O’Connor &
Robertson, 2002). Nash was the subject of the 2001 movie A Beautiful
Mind. Why did these people have these experiences? How does the human
brain work? And what is the connection between the brain’s internal
processes and people’s external behaviors? This textbook will introduce
you to various ways that the field of psychology has explored these
questions.
Clive Wearing is an accomplished musician who lost his ability to form
new memories when he became sick at the age of 46. While he can remember
how to play the piano perfectly, he cannot remember what he ate for
breakfast just an hour ago (Sacks, 2007). James Wannerton experiences a
taste sensation that is associated with the sound of words. His former
girlfriend’s name tastes like rhubarb (Mundasad, 2013). John Nash is a
brilliant mathematician and Nobel Prize winner. However, while he was a
professor at MIT, he would tell people that the New York Times
contained coded messages from extraterrestrial beings that were intended
for him. He also began to hear voices and became suspicious of the
people around him. Soon thereafter, Nash was diagnosed with
schizophrenia and admitted to a state-run mental institution (O’Connor &
Robertson, 2002). Nash was the subject of the 2001 movie A Beautiful
Mind. Why did these people have these experiences? How does the human
brain work? And what is the connection between the brain’s internal
processes and people’s external behaviors? This textbook will introduce
you to various ways that the field of psychology has explored these
questions.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Understand the merits of an education in psychology
In Greek mythology, Psyche was a mortal woman whose beauty was so great
that it rivaled that of the goddess Aphrodite. Aphrodite became so
jealous of Psyche that she sent her son, Eros, to make Psyche fall in
love with the ugliest man in the world. However, Eros accidentally
pricked himself with the tip of his arrow and fell madly in love with
Psyche himself. He took Psyche to his palace and showered her with
gifts, yet she could never see his face. While visiting Psyche, her
sisters roused suspicion in Psyche about her mysterious lover, and
eventually, Psyche betrayed Eros’ wishes to remain unseen to her
([link]). Because of this betrayal,
Eros abandoned Psyche. When Psyche appealed to Aphrodite to reunite her
with Eros, Aphrodite gave her a series of impossible tasks to complete.
Psyche managed to complete all of these trials; ultimately, her
perseverance paid off as she was reunited with Eros and was ultimately
transformed into a goddess herself (Ashliman, 2001; Greek Myths & Greek
Mythology, 2014).
{: #CNX_Psych_01_01_PsycheEros}
Psyche comes to represent the human soul’s triumph over the misfortunes
of life in the pursuit of true happiness (Bulfinch, 1855); in fact, the
Greek word psyche{: data-type=“term”} means soul, and it is often
represented as a butterfly. The word psychology was coined at a time
when the concepts of soul and mind were not as clearly distinguished
(Green, 2001). The root ology{: data-type=“term”} denotes
scientific study of, and psychology{: data-type=“term”} refers to
the scientific study of the mind. Since science studies only observable
phenomena and the mind is not directly observable, we expand this
definition to the scientific study of mind and behavior.
The scientific study of any aspect of the world uses the scientific
method to acquire knowledge. To apply the scientific method, a
researcher with a question about how or why something happens will
propose a tentative explanation, called a hypothesis, to explain the
phenomenon. A hypothesis is not just any explanation; it should fit into
the context of a scientific theory. A scientific theory is a broad
explanation or group of explanations for some aspect of the natural
world that is consistently supported by evidence over time. A theory is
the best understanding that we have of that part of the natural world.
Armed with the hypothesis, the researcher then makes observations or,
better still, carries out an experiment to test the validity of the
hypothesis. That test and its results are then published so that others
can check the results or build on them. It is necessary that any
explanation in science be testable, which means that the phenomenon must
be perceivable and measurable. For example, that a bird sings because it
is happy is not a testable hypothesis, since we have no way to measure
the happiness of a bird. We must ask a different question, perhaps about
the brain state of the bird, since this can be measured. In general,
science deals only with matter and energy, that is, those things that
can be measured, and it cannot arrive at knowledge about values and
morality. This is one reason why our scientific understanding of the
mind is so limited, since thoughts, at least as we experience them, are
neither matter nor energy. The scientific method is also a form of
empiricism. An empirical method{: data-type=“term”} for acquiring
knowledge is one based on observation, including experimentation, rather
than a method based only on forms of logical argument or previous
authorities.
It was not until the late 1800s that psychology became accepted as its
own academic discipline. Before this time, the workings of the mind were
considered under the auspices of philosophy. Given that any behavior is,
at its roots, biological, some areas of psychology take on aspects of a
natural science like biology. No biological organism exists in
isolation, and our behavior is influenced by our interactions with
others. Therefore, psychology is also a social science.
Often, students take their first psychology course because they are
interested in helping others and want to learn more about themselves and
why they act the way they do. Sometimes, students take a psychology
course because it either satisfies a general education requirement or is
required for a program of study such as nursing or pre-med. Many of
these students develop such an interest in the area that they go on to
declare psychology as their major. As a result, psychology is one of the
most popular majors on college campuses across the United States
(Johnson & Lubin, 2011). A number of well-known individuals were
psychology majors. Just a few famous names on this list are Facebook’s
creator Mark Zuckerberg, television personality and political satirist
Jon Stewart, actress Natalie Portman, and filmmaker Wes Craven (Halonen,
2011). About 6 percent of all bachelor degrees granted in the United
States are in the discipline of psychology (U.S. Department of
Education, 2013).
An education in psychology is valuable for a number of reasons.
Psychology students hone critical thinking skills and are trained in the
use of the scientific method. Critical thinking is the active
application of a set of skills to information for the understanding and
evaluation of that information. The evaluation of information—assessing
its reliability and usefulness— is an important skill in a world full of
competing “facts,” many of which are designed to be misleading. For
example, critical thinking involves maintaining an attitude of
skepticism, recognizing internal biases, making use of logical thinking,
asking appropriate questions, and making observations. Psychology
students also can develop better communication skills during the course
of their undergraduate coursework (American Psychological Association,
2011). Together, these factors increase students’ scientific literacy
and prepare students to critically evaluate the various sources of
information they encounter.
In addition to these broad-based skills, psychology students come to
understand the complex factors that shape one’s behavior. They
appreciate the interaction of our biology, our environment, and our
experiences in determining who we are and how we will behave. They learn
about basic principles that guide how we think and behave, and they come
to recognize the tremendous diversity that exists across individuals and
across cultural boundaries (American Psychological Association, 2011).
See also
Watch a brief video that
describes some of the questions a student should consider before
deciding to major in psychology.
Psychology derives from the roots psyche (meaning soul) and –ology
(meaning scientific study of). Thus, psychology is defined as the
scientific study of mind and behavior. Students of psychology develop
critical thinking skills, become familiar with the scientific method,
and recognize the complexity of behavior.
Question
Which of the following was mentioned as a skill to which
psychology students would be exposed?
critical thinking
use of the scientific method
critical evaluation of sources of information
all of the above {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Psyche is a Greek word meaning ________.
essence
soul
behavior
love {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Before psychology became a recognized academic discipline, matters
of the mind were undertaken by those in ________.
biology
chemistry
philosophy
physics {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
In the scientific method, a hypothesis is a(n) ________.
Why do you think psychology courses like this one are often
requirements of so many different programs of study?
Psychology courses deal with a number of issues that are helpful
in a variety of settings. The text made mention of the types of
skills as well as the knowledge base with which students of
psychology become familiar. As mentioned in the link to learning,
psychology is often helpful/valued in fields in which interacting
with others is a major part of the job.
Why do you think many people might be skeptical about psychology
being a science?
One goal of psychology is the study of the mind. Science cannot
directly study the mind, because it is not a form of matter or
energy. This might create some skepticism about the scientific
nature of psychology.
method for acquiring knowledge based on observation, including
experimentation, rather than a method based only on forms of
logical argument or previous authorities ^
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Understand
educational requirements for careers in academic settings *
Understand the demands of a career in an academic setting *
Understand career options outside of academic settings
Psychologists can work in many different places doing many different
things. In general, anyone wishing to continue a career in psychology at
a 4-year institution of higher education will have to earn a doctoral
degree in psychology for some specialties and at least a master’s degree
for others. In most areas of psychology, this means earning a PhD in a
relevant area of psychology. Literally, PhD{: data-type=“term”}
refers to a doctor of philosophy degree, but here, philosophy does not
refer to the field of philosophy per se. Rather, philosophy in this
context refers to many different disciplinary perspectives that would be
housed in a traditional college of liberal arts and sciences.
The requirements to earn a PhD vary from country to country and even
from school to school, but usually, individuals earning this degree must
complete a dissertation. A dissertation{: data-type=“term”} is
essentially a long research paper or bundled published articles
describing research that was conducted as a part of the candidate’s
doctoral training. In the United States, a dissertation generally has to
be defended before a committee of expert reviewers before the degree is
conferred ([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_01_04_Hooding}
Once someone earns her PhD, she may seek a faculty appointment at a
college or university. Being on the faculty of a college or university
often involves dividing time between teaching, research, and service to
the institution and profession. The amount of time spent on each of
these primary responsibilities varies dramatically from school to
school, and it is not uncommon for faculty to move from place to place
in search of the best personal fit among various academic environments.
The previous section detailed some of the major areas that are commonly
represented in psychology departments around the country; thus,
depending on the training received, an individual could be anything from
a biological psychologist to a clinical psychologist in an academic
setting ([link]).
Often times, schools offer more courses in psychology than their
full-time faculty can teach. In these cases, it is not uncommon to bring
in an adjunct faculty member or instructor. Adjunct faculty members and
instructors usually have an advanced degree in psychology, but they
often have primary careers outside of academia and serve in this role as
a secondary job. Alternatively, they may not hold the doctoral degree
required by most 4-year institutions and use these opportunities to gain
experience in teaching. Furthermore, many 2-year colleges and schools
need faculty to teach their courses in psychology. In general, many of
the people who pursue careers at these institutions have master’s
degrees in psychology, although some PhDs make careers at these
institutions as well.
Some people earning PhDs may enjoy research in an academic setting.
However, they may not be interested in teaching. These individuals might
take on faculty positions that are exclusively devoted to conducting
research. This type of position would be more likely an option at large,
research-focused universities.
In some areas in psychology, it is common for individuals who have
recently earned their PhD to seek out positions in postdoctoral
training programs{: data-type=“term”} that are available before
going on to serve as faculty. In most cases, young scientists will
complete one or two postdoctoral programs before applying for a
full-time faculty position. Postdoctoral training programs allow young
scientists to further develop their research programs and broaden their
research skills under the supervision of other professionals in the
field.
Individuals who wish to become practicing clinical psychologists have
another option for earning a doctoral degree, which is known as a PsyD.
A PsyD{: data-type=“term”} is a doctor of psychology degree that
is increasingly popular among individuals interested in pursuing careers
in clinical psychology. PsyD programs generally place less emphasis on
research-oriented skills and focus more on application of psychological
principles in the clinical context (Norcorss & Castle, 2002).
Regardless of whether earning a PhD or PsyD, in most states, an
individual wishing to practice as a licensed clinical or counseling
psychologist may complete postdoctoral work under the supervision of a
licensed psychologist. Within the last few years, however, several
states have begun to remove this requirement, which would allow someone
to get an earlier start in his career (Munsey, 2009). After an
individual has met the state requirements, his credentials are evaluated
to determine whether he can sit for the licensure exam. Only individuals
that pass this exam can call themselves licensed clinical or counseling
psychologists (Norcross, n.d.). Licensed clinical or counseling
psychologists can then work in a number of settings, ranging from
private clinical practice to hospital settings. It should be noted that
clinical psychologists and psychiatrists do different things and receive
different types of education. While both can conduct therapy and
counseling, clinical psychologists have a PhD or a PsyD, whereas
psychiatrists have a doctor of medicine degree (MD). As such, licensed
clinical psychologists can administer and interpret psychological tests,
while psychiatrists can prescribe medications.
Individuals earning a PhD can work in a variety of settings, depending
on their areas of specialization. For example, someone trained as a
biopsychologist might work in a pharmaceutical company to help test the
efficacy of a new drug. Someone with a clinical background might become
a forensic psychologist and work within the legal system to make
recommendations during criminal trials and parole hearings, or serve as
an expert in a court case.
While earning a doctoral degree in psychology is a lengthy process,
usually taking between 5–6 years of graduate study (DeAngelis, 2010),
there are a number of careers that can be attained with a master’s
degree in psychology. People who wish to provide psychotherapy can
become licensed to serve as various types of professional counselors
(Hoffman, 2012). Relevant master’s degrees are also sufficient for
individuals seeking careers as school psychologists (National
Association of School Psychologists, n.d.), in some capacities related
to sport psychology (American Psychological Association, 2014), or as
consultants in various industrial settings (Landers, 2011, June 14).
Undergraduate coursework in psychology may be applicable to other
careers such as psychiatric social work or psychiatric nursing, where
assessments and therapy may be a part of the job.
As mentioned in the opening section of this chapter, an undergraduate
education in psychology is associated with a knowledge base and skill
set that many employers find quite attractive. It should come as no
surprise, then, that individuals earning bachelor’s degrees in
psychology find themselves in a number of different careers, as shown in
[link]. Examples of a few such careers can involve
serving as case managers, working in sales, working in human resource
departments, and teaching in high schools. The rapidly growing realm of
healthcare professions is another field in which an education in
psychology is helpful and sometimes required. For example, the Medical
College Admission Test (MCAT) exam that people must take to be admitted
to medical school now includes a section on the psychological
foundations of behavior.
(Fogg, Harrington, Harrington, & Shatkin, 2012)
Ranking
Occupation
1
Mid- and top-level management (executive, administrator)
2
Sales
3
Social work
4
Other management positions
5
Human resources (personnel, training)
6
Other administrative positions
7
Insurance, real estate, business
8
Marketing and sales
9
Healthcare (nurse, pharmacist, therapist)
10
Finance (accountant, auditor)
See also
Watch a brief video
describing some of the career options available to people earning
bachelor’s degrees in psychology.
Generally, academic careers in psychology require doctoral degrees.
However, there are a number of nonacademic career options for people who
have master’s degrees in psychology. While people with bachelor’s
degrees in psychology have more limited psychology-related career
options, the skills acquired as a function of an undergraduate education
in psychology are useful in a variety of work contexts.
Question
If someone wanted to become a psychology professor at a 4-year
college, then s/he would probably need a ________ degree in
psychology.
bachelor of science
bachelor of art
master’s
PhD {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The ________ places less emphasis on research and more emphasis
on application of therapeutic skills.
PhD
PsyD
postdoctoral training program
dissertation {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which of the following degrees would be the minimum required to
teach psychology courses in high school?
PhD
PsyD
master’s degree
bachelor’s degree {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
One would need at least a(n) ________ degree to serve as a
school psychologist.
Why is an undergraduate education in psychology so helpful in a
number of different lines of work?
An undergraduate education in psychology hones critical thinking
skills. These skills are useful in many different work settings.
Other than a potentially greater salary, what would be the reasons
an individual would continue on to get a graduate degree in
psychology?
The graduate degree would be a stronger guarantee of working in a
psychology-related field and one would have greater control over
the specialty of that work. It would allow one to practice in a
clinical setting. In general, it would allow someone to work in a
more independent or supervisory capacity.
allows young scientists to further develop their research programs
and broaden their research skills under the supervision of other
professionals in the field ^
(doctor of psychology) doctoral degree that places less emphasis
on research-oriented skills and focuses more on application of
psychological principles in the clinical context
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Appreciate the
diversity of interests and foci within psychology * Understand basic
interests and applications in each of the described areas of
psychology * Demonstrate familiarity with some of the major concepts
or important figures in each of the described areas of psychology
Contemporary psychology is a diverse field that is influenced by all of
the historical perspectives described in the preceding section.
Reflective of the discipline’s diversity is the diversity seen within
the American Psychological Association (APA){: data-type=“term”}.
The APA is a professional organization representing psychologists in the
United States. The APA is the largest organization of psychologists in
the world, and its mission is to advance and disseminate psychological
knowledge for the betterment of people. There are 56 divisions within
the APA, representing a wide variety of specialties that range from
Societies for the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality to Exercise
and Sport Psychology to Behavioral Neuroscience and Comparative
Psychology. Reflecting the diversity of the field of psychology itself,
members, affiliate members, and associate members span the spectrum from
students to doctoral-level psychologists, and come from a variety of
places including educational settings, criminal justice, hospitals, the
armed forces, and industry (American Psychological Association, 2014).
The Association for Psychological Science (APS) was founded in 1988 and
seeks to advance the scientific orientation of psychology. Its founding
resulted from disagreements between members of the scientific and
clinical branches of psychology within the APA. The APS publishes five
research journals and engages in education and advocacy with funding
agencies. A significant proportion of its members are international,
although the majority is located in the United States. Other
organizations provide networking and collaboration opportunities for
professionals of several ethnic or racial groups working in psychology,
such as the National Latina/o Psychological Association (NLPA), the
Asian American Psychological Association (AAPA), the Association of
Black Psychologists (ABPsi), and the Society of Indian Psychologists
(SIP). Most of these groups are also dedicated to studying psychological
and social issues within their specific communities.
This section will provide an overview of the major subdivisions within
psychology today in the order in which they are introduced throughout
the remainder of this textbook. This is not meant to be an exhaustive
listing, but it will provide insight into the major areas of research
and practice of modern-day psychologists.
See also
Please visit this website
to learn about the divisions within the APA.
As the name suggests, biopsychology{: data-type=“term”} explores
how our biology influences our behavior. While biological psychology is
a broad field, many biological psychologists want to understand how the
structure and function of the nervous system is related to behavior
([link]). As such, they often combine
the research strategies of both psychologists and physiologists to
accomplish this goal (as discussed in Carlson, 2013).
{: #CNX_Psych_01_03_NervSystem}
The research interests of biological psychologists span a number of
domains, including but not limited to, sensory and motor systems, sleep,
drug use and abuse, ingestive behavior, reproductive behavior,
neurodevelopment, plasticity of the nervous system, and biological
correlates of psychological disorders. Given the broad areas of interest
falling under the purview of biological psychology, it will probably
come as no surprise that individuals from all sorts of backgrounds are
involved in this research, including biologists, medical professionals,
physiologists, and chemists. This interdisciplinary approach is often
referred to as neuroscience, of which biological psychology is a
component (Carlson, 2013).
While biopsychology typically focuses on the immediate causes of
behavior based in the physiology of a human or other animal,
evolutionary psychology seeks to study the ultimate biological causes of
behavior. To the extent that a behavior is impacted by genetics, a
behavior, like any anatomical characteristic of a human or animal, will
demonstrate adaption to its surroundings. These surroundings include the
physical environment and, since interactions between organisms can be
important to survival and reproduction, the social environment. The
study of behavior in the context of evolution has its origins with
Charles Darwin, the co-discoverer of the theory of evolution by natural
selection. Darwin was well aware that behaviors should be adaptive and
wrote books titled, The Descent of Man (1871) and The Expression of
the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), to explore this field.
Evolutionary psychology, and specifically, the evolutionary
psychologypastehere of humans, has enjoyed a
resurgence in recent decades. To be subject to evolution by natural
selection, a behavior must have a significant genetic cause. In general,
we expect all human cultures to express a behavior if it is caused
genetically, since the genetic differences among human groups are small.
The approach taken by most evolutionary psychologists is to predict the
outcome of a behavior in a particular situation based on evolutionary
theory and then to make observations, or conduct experiments, to
determine whether the results match the theory. It is important to
recognize that these types of studies are not strong evidence that a
behavior is adaptive, since they lack information that the behavior is
in some part genetic and not entirely cultural (Endler, 1986).
Demonstrating that a trait, especially in humans, is naturally selected
is extraordinarily difficult; perhaps for this reason, some evolutionary
psychologists are content to assume the behaviors they study have
genetic determinants (Confer et al., 2010).
One other drawback of evolutionary psychology is that the traits that we
possess now evolved under environmental and social conditions far back
in human history, and we have a poor understanding of what these
conditions were. This makes predictions about what is adaptive for a
behavior difficult. Behavioral traits need not be adaptive under current
conditions, only under the conditions of the past when they evolved,
about which we can only hypothesize.
There are many areas of human behavior for which evolution can make
predictions. Examples include memory, mate choice, relationships between
kin, friendship and cooperation, parenting, social organization, and
status (Confer et al., 2010).
Evolutionary psychologists have had success in finding experimental
correspondence between observations and expectations. In one example, in
a study of mate preference differences between men and women that
spanned 37 cultures, Buss (1989) found that women valued earning
potential factors greater than men, and men valued potential
reproductive factors (youth and attractiveness) greater than women in
their prospective mates. In general, the predictions were in line with
the predictions of evolution, although there were deviations in some
cultures.
Scientists interested in both physiological aspects of sensory systems
as well as in the psychological experience of sensory information work
within the area of sensationpastehere and
perceptionpastehere
([link]). As such, sensation and
perception research is also quite interdisciplinary. Imagine walking
between buildings as you move from one class to another. You are
inundated with sights, sounds, touch sensations, and smells. You also
experience the temperature of the air around you and maintain your
balance as you make your way. These are all factors of interest to
someone working in the domain of sensation and perception.
{:
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As described in a later chapter that focuses on the results of studies
in sensation and perception, our experience of our world is not as
simple as the sum total of all of the sensory information (or
sensations) together. Rather, our experience (or perception) is complex
and is influenced by where we focus our attention, our previous
experiences, and even our cultural backgrounds.
As mentioned in the previous section, the cognitive revolution created
an impetus for psychologists to focus their attention on better
understanding the mind and mental processes that underlie behavior.
Thus, cognitive psychology{: data-type=“term”} is the area of
psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their
relationship to our experiences and our actions. Like biological
psychology, cognitive psychology is broad in its scope and often
involves collaborations among people from a diverse range of
disciplinary backgrounds. This has led some to coin the term cognitive
science to describe the interdisciplinary nature of this area of
research (Miller, 2003).
Cognitive psychologists have research interests that span a spectrum of
topics, ranging from attention to problem solving to language to memory.
The approaches used in studying these topics are equally diverse. Given
such diversity, cognitive psychology is not captured in one chapter of
this text per se; rather, various concepts related to cognitive
psychology will be covered in relevant portions of the chapters in this
text on sensation and perception, thinking and intelligence, memory,
lifespan development, social psychology, and therapy.
See also
View a brief video recapping some
of the major concepts explored by cognitive psychologists.
Developmental psychology{: data-type=“term”} is the scientific
study of development across a lifespan. Developmental psychologists are
interested in processes related to physical maturation. However, their
focus is not limited to the physical changes associated with aging, as
they also focus on changes in cognitive skills, moral reasoning, social
behavior, and other psychological attributes.
Early developmental psychologists focused primarily on changes that
occurred through reaching adulthood, providing enormous insight into the
differences in physical, cognitive, and social capacities that exist
between very young children and adults. For instance, research by Jean
Piagetpastehere
([link]) demonstrated that very young
children do not demonstrate object permanence. Object permanence refers
to the understanding that physical things continue to exist, even if
they are hidden from us. If you were to show an adult a toy, and then
hide it behind a curtain, the adult knows that the toy still exists.
However, very young infants act as if a hidden object no longer exists.
The age at which object permanence is achieved is somewhat controversial
(Munakata, McClelland, Johnson, and Siegler, 1997).
{: #CNX_Psych_01_03_Piaget}
While Piaget was focused on cognitive changes during infancy and
childhood as we move to adulthood, there is an increasing interest in
extending research into the changes that occur much later in life. This
may be reflective of changing population demographics of developed
nations as a whole. As more and more people live longer lives, the
number of people of advanced age will continue to increase. Indeed, it
is estimated that there were just over 40 million people aged 65 or
older living in the United States in 2010. However, by 2020, this number
is expected to increase to about 55 million. By the year 2050, it is
estimated that nearly 90 million people in this country will be 65 or
older (Department of Health and Human Services, n.d.).
Personality psychology{: data-type=“term”} focuses on patterns of
thoughts and behaviors that make each individual unique. Several
individuals (e.g., Freud and Maslow) that we have already discussed in
our historical overview of psychology, and the American psychologist
Gordon Allport, contributed to early theories of personality. These
early theorists attempted to explain how an individual’s personality
develops from his or her given perspective. For example, Freud proposed
that personality arose as conflicts between the conscious and
unconscious parts of the mind were carried out over the lifespan.
Specifically, Freud theorized that an individual went through various
psychosexual stages of development. According to Freud, adult
personality would result from the resolution of various conflicts that
centered on the migration of erogenous (or sexual pleasure-producing)
zones from the oral (mouth) to the anus to the phallus to the genitals.
Like many of Freud’s theories, this particular idea was controversial
and did not lend itself to experimental tests (Person, 1980).
More recently, the study of personality has taken on a more quantitative
approach. Rather than explaining how personality arises, research is
focused on identifying personality traits{: data-type=“term”},
measuring these traits, and determining how these traits interact in a
particular context to determine how a person will behave in any given
situation. Personality traits are relatively consistent patterns of
thought and behavior, and many have proposed that five trait dimensions
are sufficient to capture the variations in personality seen across
individuals. These five dimensions are known as the “Big Five” or the
Five Factor modelpastehere, and include
dimensions of conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness,
and extraversion ([link]). Each of these
traits has been demonstrated to be relatively stable over the lifespan
(e.g., Rantanen, Metsäpelto, Feldt, Pulkinnen, and Kokko, 2007; Soldz &
Vaillant, 1999; McCrae & Costa, 2008) and is influenced by genetics
(e.g., Jang, Livesly, and Vernon, 1996).
Social psychologypastehere focuses on how
we interact with and relate to others. Social psychologists conduct
research on a wide variety of topics that include differences in how we
explain our own behavior versus how we explain the behaviors of others,
prejudice, and attraction, and how we resolve interpersonal conflicts.
Social psychologists have also sought to determine how being among other
people changes our own behavior and patterns of thinking.
There are many interesting examples of social psychological research,
and you will read about many of these in a later chapter of this
textbook. Until then, you will be introduced to one of the most
controversial psychological studies ever conducted. Stanley
Milgrampastehere was an American social
psychologist who is most famous for research that he conducted on
obedience. After the holocaust, in 1961, a Nazi war criminal, Adolf
Eichmann, who was accused of committing mass atrocities, was put on
trial. Many people wondered how German soldiers were capable of
torturing prisoners in concentration camps, and they were unsatisfied
with the excuses given by soldiers that they were simply following
orders. At the time, most psychologists agreed that few people would be
willing to inflict such extraordinary pain and suffering, simply because
they were obeying orders. Milgram decided to conduct research to
determine whether or not this was true
([link]). As you will read later in the
text, Milgram found that nearly two-thirds of his participants were
willing to deliver what they believed to be lethal shocks to another
person, simply because they were instructed to do so by an authority
figure (in this case, a man dressed in a lab coat). This was in spite of
the fact that participants received payment for simply showing up for
the research study and could have chosen not to inflict pain or more
serious consequences on another person by withdrawing from the study. No
one was actually hurt or harmed in any way, Milgram’s experiment was a
clever ruse that took advantage of research confederates, those who
pretend to be participants in a research study who are actually working
for the researcher and have clear, specific directions on how to behave
during the research study (Hock, 2009). Milgram’s and others’ studies
that involved deception and potential emotional harm to study
participants catalyzed the development of ethical guidelines for
conducting psychological research that discourage the use of deception
of research subjects, unless it can be argued not to cause harm and, in
general, requiring informed consent of participants.
Industrial-Organizational psychology{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} (I-O psychology) is a subfield of psychology that applies
psychological theories, principles, and research findings in industrial
and organizational settings. I-O psychologists are often involved in
issues related to personnel management, organizational structure, and
workplace environment. Businesses often seek the aid of I-O
psychologists to make the best hiring decisions as well as to create an
environment that results in high levels of employee productivity and
efficiency. In addition to its applied nature, I-O psychology also
involves conducting scientific research on behavior within I-O settings
(Riggio, 2013).
Health psychologypastehere focuses on how
health is affected by the interaction of biological, psychological, and
sociocultural factors. This particular approach is known as the
biopsychosocial model{: data-type=“term”}
([link]). Health psychologists are
interested in helping individuals achieve better health through public
policy, education, intervention, and research. Health psychologists
might conduct research that explores the relationship between one’s
genetic makeup, patterns of behavior, relationships, psychological
stress, and health. They may research effective ways to motivate people
to address patterns of behavior that contribute to poorer health
(MacDonald, 2013).
Researchers in sport and exercise psychology{: data-type=“term”}
study the psychological aspects of sport performance, including
motivation and performance anxiety, and the effects of sport on mental
and emotional wellbeing. Research is also conducted on similar topics as
they relate to physical exercise in general. The discipline also
includes topics that are broader than sport and exercise but that are
related to interactions between mental and physical performance under
demanding conditions, such as fire fighting, military operations,
artistic performance, and surgery.
Clinical psychology{: data-type=“term”} is the area of psychology
that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
and other problematic patterns of behavior. As such, it is generally
considered to be a more applied area within psychology; however, some
clinicians are also actively engaged in scientific research.
Counseling psychology{: data-type=“term”} is a similar discipline
that focuses on emotional, social, vocational, and health-related
outcomes in individuals who are considered psychologically healthy.
As mentioned earlier, both Freud and Rogers provided perspectives that
have been influential in shaping how clinicians interact with people
seeking psychotherapy. While aspects of the psychoanalytic theory are
still found among some of today’s therapists who are trained from a
psychodynamic perspective, Roger’s ideas about client-centered
therapypastehere have been especially
influential in shaping how many clinicians operate. Furthermore, both
behaviorism and the cognitive revolution have shaped clinical practice
in the forms of behavioral therapy, cognitive therapy, and
cognitive-behavioral therapy ([link]).
Issues related to the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
and problematic patterns of behavior will be discussed in detail in
later chapters of this textbook.
{:
#CNX_Psych_01_03_CogBehav}
By far, this is the area of psychology that receives the most attention
in popular media, and many people mistakenly assume that all psychology
is clinical psychology.
Forensic psychology{: data-type=“term”} is a branch of psychology
that deals questions of psychology as they arise in the context of the
justice system. For example, forensic psychologists (and forensic
psychiatrists) will assess a person’s competency to stand trial, assess
the state of mind of a defendant, act as consultants on child custody
cases, consult on sentencing and treatment recommendations, and advise
on issues such as eyewitness testimony and children’s testimony
(American Board of Forensic Psychology, 2014). In these capacities, they
will typically act as expert witnesses, called by either side in a court
case to provide their research- or experience-based opinions. As expert
witnesses, forensic psychologists must have a good understanding of the
law and provide information in the context of the legal system rather
than just within the realm of psychology. Forensic psychologists are
also used in the jury selection process and witness preparation. They
may also be involved in providing psychological treatment within the
criminal justice system. Criminal profilers are a relatively small
proportion of psychologists that act as consultants to law enforcement.
Psychology is a diverse discipline that is made up of several major
subdivisions with unique perspectives. Biological psychology involves
the study of the biological bases of behavior. Sensation and perception
refer to the area of psychology that is focused on how information from
our sensory modalities is received, and how this information is
transformed into our perceptual experiences of the world around us.
Cognitive psychology is concerned with the relationship that exists
between thought and behavior, and developmental psychologists study the
physical and cognitive changes that occur throughout one’s lifespan.
Personality psychology focuses on individuals’ unique patterns of
behavior, thought, and emotion. Industrial and organizational
psychology, health psychology, sport and exercise psychology, forensic
psychology, and clinical psychology are all considered applied areas of
psychology. Industrial and organizational psychologists apply
psychological concepts to I-O settings. Health psychologists look for
ways to help people live healthier lives, and clinical psychology
involves the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and
other problematic behavioral patterns. Sport and exercise psychologists
study the interactions between thoughts, emotions, and physical
performance in sports, exercise, and other activities. Forensic
psychologists carry out activities related to psychology in association
with the justice system.
Question
A researcher interested in how changes in the cells of the
hippocampus (a structure in the brain related to learning and
memory) are related to memory formation would be most likely to
identify as a(n) ________ psychologist.
biological
health
clinical
social {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
An individual’s consistent pattern of thought and behavior is
known as a(n) ________.
psychosexual stage
object permanence
personality
perception {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
In Milgram’s controversial study on obedience, nearly ________
of the participants were willing to administer what appeared to be
lethal electrical shocks to another person because they were told
to do so by an authority figure.
1/3
2/3
3/4
4/5 {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
A researcher interested in what factors make an employee best
suited for a given job would most likely identify as a(n)
________ psychologist.
Given the incredible diversity among the various areas of
psychology that were described in this section, how do they all
fit together?
Although the different perspectives all operate on different
levels of analyses, have different foci of interests, and
different methodological approaches, all of these areas share a
focus on understanding and/or correcting patterns of thought
and/or behavior.
What are the potential ethical concerns associated with Milgram’s
research on obedience?
Many people have questioned how ethical this particular research
was. Although no one was actually harmed in Milgram’s study, many
people have questioned how the knowledge that you would be willing
to inflict incredible pain and/or death to another person, simply
because someone in authority told you to do so, would affect
someone’s self-concept and psychological health. Furthermore, the
degree to which deception was used in this particular study raises
a few eyebrows.
area of psychology that focuses on the interactions between mental
and emotional factors and physical performance in sports,
exercise, and other activities
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Understand the
importance of Wundt and James in the development of psychology *
Appreciate Freud’s influence on psychology * Understand the basic
tenets of Gestalt psychology * Appreciate the important role that
behaviorism played in psychology’s history * Understand basic tenets
of humanism * Understand how the cognitive revolution shifted
psychology’s focus back to the mind
Psychology is a relatively young science with its experimental roots in
the 19th century, compared, for example, to human physiology, which
dates much earlier. As mentioned, anyone interested in exploring issues
related to the mind generally did so in a philosophical context prior to
the 19th century. Two men, working in the 19th century, are generally
credited as being the founders of psychology as a science and academic
discipline that was distinct from philosophy. Their names were Wilhelm
Wundt and William James. This section will provide an overview of the
shifts in paradigms that have influenced psychology from Wundt and James
through today.
Wilhelm Wundtpastehere (1832–1920) was a
German scientist who was the first person to be referred to as a
psychologist. His famous book entitled Principles of Physiological
Psychology was published in 1873. Wundt viewed psychology as a
scientific study of conscious experience, and he believed that the goal
of psychology was to identify components of consciousness and how those
components combined to result in our conscious experience. Wundt used
introspection{: data-type=“term”} (he called it “internal
perception”), a process by which someone examines their own conscious
experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any
other aspect of nature that a scientist observed. Wundt’s version of
introspection used only very specific experimental conditions in which
an external stimulus was designed to produce a scientifically observable
(repeatable) experience of the mind (Danziger, 1980). The first
stringent requirement was the use of “trained” or practiced observers,
who could immediately observe and report a reaction. The second
requirement was the use of repeatable stimuli that always produced the
same experience in the subject and allowed the subject to expect and
thus be fully attentive to the inner reaction. These experimental
requirements were put in place to eliminate “interpretation” in the
reporting of internal experiences and to counter the argument that there
is no way to know that an individual is observing their mind or
consciousness accurately, since it cannot be seen by any other person.
This attempt to understand the structure or characteristics of the mind
was known as structuralism{: data-type=“term”}. Wundt established
his psychology laboratory at the University at Leipzig in 1879
([link]). In this laboratory, Wundt and his
students conducted experiments on, for example, reaction times. A
subject, sometimes in a room isolated from the scientist, would receive
a stimulus such as a light, image, or sound. The subject’s reaction to
the stimulus would be to push a button, and an apparatus would record
the time to reaction. Wundt could measure reaction time to
one-thousandth of a second (Nicolas & Ferrand, 1999).
{:
#CNX_Psych_01_02_Wundt}
However, despite his efforts to train individuals in the process of
introspection, this process remained highly subjective, and there was
very little agreement between individuals. As a result, structuralism
fell out of favor with the passing of Wundt’s student, Edward Titchener,
in 1927 (Gordon, 1995).
William Jamespastehere (1842–1910) was the
first American psychologist who espoused a different perspective on how
psychology should operate ([link]). James
was introduced to Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection and
accepted it as an explanation of an organism’s characteristics. Key to
that theory is the idea that natural selection leads to organisms that
are adapted to their environment, including their behavior. Adaptation
means that a trait of an organism has a function for the survival and
reproduction of the individual, because it has been naturally selected.
As James saw it, psychology’s purpose was to study the function of
behavior in the world, and as such, his perspective was known as
functionalism{: data-type=“term”}. Functionalism focused on how
mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment.
Functionalism has a second, more subtle meaning in that functionalists
were more interested in the operation of the whole mind rather than of
its individual parts, which were the focus of structuralism. Like Wundt,
James believed that introspection could serve as one means by which
someone might study mental activities, but James also relied on more
objective measures, including the use of various recording devices, and
examinations of concrete products of mental activities and of anatomy
and physiology (Gordon, 1995).
Perhaps one of the most influential and well-known figures in
psychology’s history was Sigmund Freud{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} ([link]). Freud (1856–1939)
was an Austrian neurologist who was fascinated by patients suffering
from “hysteria” and neurosis. Hysteria was an ancient diagnosis for
disorders, primarily of women with a wide variety of symptoms, including
physical symptoms and emotional disturbances, none of which had an
apparent physical cause. Freud theorized that many of his patients’
problems arose from the unconscious mind. In Freud’s view, the
unconscious mind was a repository of feelings and urges of which we have
no awareness. Gaining access to the unconscious, then, was crucial to
the successful resolution of the patient’s problems. According to Freud,
the unconscious mind could be accessed through dream analysis, by
examinations of the first words that came to people’s minds, and through
seemingly innocent slips of the tongue. Psychoanalytic theory{:
data-type=“term”} focuses on the role of a person’s unconscious, as well
as early childhood experiences, and this particular perspective
dominated clinical psychology for several decades (Thorne & Henley,
2005).
{:
#CNX_Psych_01_02_Freud}
Freud’s ideas were influential, and you will learn more about them when
you study lifespan development, personality, and therapy. For instance,
many therapists believe strongly in the unconscious and the impact of
early childhood experiences on the rest of a person’s life. The method
of psychoanalysis, which involves the patient talking about their
experiences and selves, while not invented by Freud, was certainly
popularized by him and is still used today. Many of Freud’s other ideas,
however, are controversial. Drew Westen (1998) argues that many of the
criticisms of Freud’s ideas are misplaced, in that they attack his older
ideas without taking into account later writings. Westen also argues
that critics fail to consider the success of the broad ideas that Freud
introduced or developed, such as the importance of childhood experiences
in adult motivations, the role of unconscious versus conscious
motivations in driving our behavior, the fact that motivations can cause
conflicts that affect behavior, the effects of mental representations of
ourselves and others in guiding our interactions, and the development of
personality over time. Westen identifies subsequent research support for
all of these ideas.
More modern iterations of Freud’s clinical approach have been
empirically demonstrated to be effective (Knekt et al., 2008; Shedler,
2010). Some current practices in psychotherapy involve examining
unconscious aspects of the self and relationships, often through the
relationship between the therapist and the client. Freud’s historical
significance and contributions to clinical practice merit his inclusion
in a discussion of the historical movements within psychology.
Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler
(1887–1967) were three German psychologists who immigrated to the United
States in the early 20th century to escape Nazi Germany. These men are
credited with introducing psychologists in the United States to various
Gestalt principles. The word Gestalt{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} roughly translates to “whole;” a major emphasis of Gestalt
psychology deals with the fact that although a sensory experience can be
broken down into individual parts, how those parts relate to each other
as a whole is often what the individual responds to in perception. For
example, a song may be made up of individual notes played by different
instruments, but the real nature of the song is perceived in the
combinations of these notes as they form the melody, rhythm, and
harmony. In many ways, this particular perspective would have directly
contradicted Wundt’s ideas of structuralism (Thorne & Henley, 2005).
Unfortunately, in moving to the United States, these men were forced to
abandon much of their work and were unable to continue to conduct
research on a large scale. These factors along with the rise of
behaviorism (described next) in the United States prevented principles
of Gestalt psychology from being as influential in the United States as
they had been in their native Germany (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Despite
these issues, several Gestalt principles are still very influential
today. Considering the human individual as a whole rather than as a sum
of individually measured parts became an important foundation in
humanistic theory late in the century. The ideas of Gestalt have
continued to influence research on sensation and perception.
Structuralism, Freud, and the Gestalt psychologists were all concerned
in one way or another with describing and understanding inner
experience. But other researchers had concerns that inner experience
could be a legitimate subject of scientific inquiry and chose instead to
exclusively study behavior, the objectively observable outcome of mental
processes.
Early work in the field of behavior was conducted by the Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlovpastehere
(1849–1936). Pavlov studied a form of learning behavior called a
conditioned reflex, in which an animal or human produced a reflex
(unconscious) response to a stimulus and, over time, was conditioned to
produce the response to a different stimulus that the experimenter
associated with the original stimulus. The reflex Pavlov worked with was
salivation in response to the presence of food. The salivation reflex
could be elicited using a second stimulus, such as a specific sound,
that was presented in association with the initial food stimulus several
times. Once the response to the second stimulus was “learned,” the food
stimulus could be omitted. Pavlov’s “classical conditioning” is only one
form of learning behavior studied by behaviorists.
John B. Watsonpastehere (1878–1958) was an
influential American psychologist whose most famous work occurred during
the early 20th century at Johns Hopkins University
([link]). While Wundt and James were
concerned with understanding conscious experience, Watson thought that
the study of consciousness was flawed. Because he believed that
objective analysis of the mind was impossible, Watson preferred to focus
directly on observable behavior and try to bring that behavior under
control. Watson was a major proponent of shifting the focus of
psychology from the mind to behavior, and this approach of observing and
controlling behavior came to be known as behaviorism{:
data-type=“term”}. A major object of study by behaviorists was learned
behavior and its interaction with inborn qualities of the organism.
Behaviorism commonly used animals in experiments under the assumption
that what was learned using animal models could, to some degree, be
applied to human behavior. Indeed, Tolman (1938) stated, “I believe that
everything important in psychology (except … such matters as involve
society and words) can be investigated in essence through the continued
experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior
at a choice-point in a maze.”
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Watson}
Behaviorism dominated experimental psychology for several decades, and
its influence can still be felt today (Thorne & Henley, 2005).
Behaviorism is largely responsible for establishing psychology as a
scientific discipline through its objective methods and especially
experimentation. In addition, it is used in behavioral and
cognitive-behavioral therapy. Behavior modification is commonly used in
classroom settings. Behaviorism has also led to research on
environmental influences on human behavior.
B. F. Skinnerpastehere (1904–1990) was an
American psychologist ([link]). Like
Watson, Skinner was a behaviorist, and he concentrated on how behavior
was affected by its consequences. Therefore, Skinner spoke of
reinforcement and punishment as major factors in driving behavior. As a
part of his research, Skinner developed a chamber that allowed the
careful study of the principles of modifying behavior through
reinforcement and punishment. This device, known as an operant
conditioning chamber (or more familiarly, a Skinner box), has remained a
crucial resource for researchers studying behavior (Thorne & Henley,
2005).
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Skinner}
The Skinner boxpastehere is a chamber that
isolates the subject from the external environment and has a behavior
indicator such as a lever or a button. When the animal pushes the button
or lever, the box is able to deliver a positive reinforcement of the
behavior (such as food) or a punishment (such as a noise) or a token
conditioner (such as a light) that is correlated with either the
positive reinforcement or punishment.
Skinner’s focus on positive and negative reinforcement of learned
behaviors had a lasting influence in psychology that has waned somewhat
since the growth of research in cognitive psychology. Despite this,
conditioned learning is still used in human behavioral modification.
Skinner’s two widely read and controversial popular science books about
the value of operant conditioning for creating happier lives remain as
thought-provoking arguments for his approach (Greengrass, 2004).
During the early 20th century, American psychology was dominated by
behaviorism and psychoanalysis. However, some psychologists were
uncomfortable with what they viewed as limited perspectives being so
influential to the field. They objected to the pessimism and determinism
(all actions driven by the unconscious) of Freud. They also disliked the
reductionism, or simplifying nature, of behaviorism. Behaviorism is also
deterministic at its core, because it sees human behavior as entirely
determined by a combination of genetics and environment. Some
psychologists began to form their own ideas that emphasized personal
control, intentionality, and a true predisposition for “good” as
important for our self-concept and our behavior. Thus, humanism emerged.
Humanism{: data-type=“term”} is a perspective within psychology
that emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans. Two
of the most well-known proponents of humanistic psychology are Abraham
Maslow and Carl Rogers (O’Hara, n.d.).
Abraham Maslowpastehere (1908–1970) was an
American psychologist who is best known for proposing a hierarchy of
human needs in motivating behavior
([link]). Although this concept will be
discussed in more detail in a later chapter, a brief overview will be
provided here. Maslow asserted that so long as basic needs necessary for
survival were met (e.g., food, water, shelter), higher-level needs
(e.g., social needs) would begin to motivate behavior. According to
Maslow, the highest-level needs relate to self-actualization, a process
by which we achieve our full potential. Obviously, the focus on the
positive aspects of human nature that are characteristic of the
humanistic perspective is evident (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Humanistic
psychologists rejected, on principle, the research approach based on
reductionist experimentation in the tradition of the physical and
biological sciences, because it missed the “whole” human being.
Beginning with Maslow and Rogers, there was an insistence on a
humanistic research program. This program has been largely qualitative
(not measurement-based), but there exist a number of quantitative
research strains within humanistic psychology, including research on
happiness, self-concept, meditation, and the outcomes of humanistic
psychotherapy (Friedman, 2008).
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Maslow}
Carl Rogerspastehere (1902–1987) was also
an American psychologist who, like Maslow, emphasized the potential for
good that exists within all people
([link]). Rogers used a therapeutic
technique known as client-centered therapy in helping his clients deal
with problematic issues that resulted in their seeking psychotherapy.
Unlike a psychoanalytic approach in which the therapist plays an
important role in interpreting what conscious behavior reveals about the
unconscious mind, client-centered therapy involves the patient taking a
lead role in the therapy session. Rogers believed that a therapist
needed to display three features to maximize the effectiveness of this
particular approach: unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and
empathy. Unconditional positive regard refers to the fact that the
therapist accepts their client for who they are, no matter what he or
she might say. Provided these factors, Rogers believed that people were
more than capable of dealing with and working through their own issues
(Thorne & Henley, 2005).
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Rogers}
Humanism has been influential to psychology as a whole. Both Maslow and
Rogers are well-known names among students of psychology (you will read
more about both men later in this text), and their ideas have influenced
many scholars. Furthermore, Rogers’ client-centered approach to therapy
is still commonly used in psychotherapeutic settings today (O’hara,
n.d.)
See also
View a brief video of Carl
Rogers describing his therapeutic approach.
Behaviorism’s emphasis on objectivity and focus on external behavior had
pulled psychologists’ attention away from the mind for a prolonged
period of time. The early work of the humanistic psychologists
redirected attention to the individual human as a whole, and as a
conscious and self-aware being. By the 1950s, new disciplinary
perspectives in linguistics, neuroscience, and computer science were
emerging, and these areas revived interest in the mind as a focus of
scientific inquiry. This particular perspective has come to be known as
the cognitive revolution (Miller, 2003). By 1967, Ulric Neisser
published the first textbook entitled Cognitive Psychology, which
served as a core text in cognitive psychology courses around the country
(Thorne & Henley, 2005).
Although no one person is entirely responsible for starting the
cognitive revolution, Noam Chomsky was very influential in the early
days of this movement ([link]). Chomsky
(1928–), an American linguist, was dissatisfied with the influence that
behaviorism had had on psychology. He believed that psychology’s focus
on behavior was short-sighted and that the field had to re-incorporate
mental functioning into its purview if it were to offer any meaningful
contributions to understanding behavior (Miller, 2003).
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Chomsky}
European psychology had never really been as influenced by behaviorism
as had American psychology; and thus, the cognitive revolution helped
reestablish lines of communication between European psychologists and
their American counterparts. Furthermore, psychologists began to
cooperate with scientists in other fields, like anthropology,
linguistics, computer science, and neuroscience, among others. This
interdisciplinary approach often was referred to as the cognitive
sciences, and the influence and prominence of this particular
perspective resonates in modern-day psychology (Miller, 2003).
Tip
Feminist Psychology
The science of psychology has had an impact on human wellbeing, both
positive and negative. The dominant influence of Western, white, and
male academics in the early history of psychology meant that
psychology developed with the biases inherent in those individuals,
which often had negative consequences for members of society that
were not white or male. Women, members of ethnic minorities in both
the United States and other countries, and individuals with sexual
orientations other than heterosexual had difficulties entering the
field of psychology and therefore influencing its development. They
also suffered from the attitudes of white, male psychologists, who
were not immune to the nonscientific attitudes prevalent in the
society in which they developed and worked. Until the 1960s, the
science of psychology was largely a “womanless” psychology (Crawford
& Marecek, 1989), meaning that few women were able to practice
psychology, so they had little influence on what was studied. In
addition, the experimental subjects of psychology were mostly men,
which resulted from underlying assumptions that gender had no
influence on psychology and that women were not of sufficient
interest to study.
An article by Naomi Weisstein, first published in 1968 (Weisstein,
1993), stimulated a feminist revolution in psychology by presenting a
critique of psychology as a science. She also specifically criticized
male psychologists for constructing the psychology of women entirely
out of their own cultural biases and without careful experimental
tests to verify any of their characterizations of women. Weisstein
used, as examples, statements by prominent psychologists in the
1960s, such as this quote by Bruno Bettleheim: “… we must start
with the realization that, as much as women want to be good
scientists or engineers, they want first and foremost to be womanly
companions of men and to be mothers.” Weisstein’s critique formed the
foundation for the subsequent development of a feminist psychology
that attempted to be free of the influence of male cultural biases on
our knowledge of the psychology of women and, indeed, of both
genders.
Crawford & Marecek (1989) identify several feminist approaches to
psychology that can be described as feminist psychology. These
include re-evaluating and discovering the contributions of women to
the history of psychology, studying psychological gender differences,
and questioning the male bias present across the practice of the
scientific approach to knowledge.
Culture has important impacts on individuals and social psychology, yet
the effects of culturepastehere on
psychology are under-studied. There is a risk that psychological
theories and data derived from white, American settings could be assumed
to apply to individuals and social groups from other cultures and this
is unlikely to be true (Betancourt & López, 1993). One weakness in the
field of cross-cultural psychology is that in looking for differences in
psychological attributes across cultures, there remains a need to go
beyond simple descriptive statistics (Betancourt & López, 1993). In this
sense, it has remained a descriptive science, rather than one seeking to
determine cause and effect. For example, a study of characteristics of
individuals seeking treatment for a binge eating disorder in Hispanic
American, African American, and Caucasian American individuals found
significant differences between groups (Franko et al., 2012). The study
concluded that results from studying any one of the groups could not be
extended to the other groups, and yet potential causes of the
differences were not measured.
This history of multicultural psychology in the United States is a long
one. The role of African American psychologists in researching the
cultural differences between African American individual and social
psychology is but one example. In 1920, Cecil Sumner was the first
African American to receive a PhD in psychology in the United States.
Sumner established a psychology degree program at Howard University,
leading to the education of a new generation of African American
psychologists (Black, Spence, and Omari, 2004). Much of the work of
early African American psychologists (and a general focus of much work
in first half of the 20th century in psychology in the United States)
was dedicated to testing and intelligence testing in particular (Black
et al., 2004). That emphasis has continued, particularly because of the
importance of testing in determining opportunities for children, but
other areas of exploration in African-American psychology research
include learning style, sense of community and belonging, and
spiritualism (Black et al., 2004).
The American Psychological Association has several ethnically based
organizations for professional psychologists that facilitate
interactions among members. Since psychologists belonging to specific
ethnic groups or cultures have the most interest in studying the
psychology of their communities, these organizations provide an
opportunity for the growth of research on the impact of culture on
individual and social psychology.
See also
Read a news story about the
influence of an African American’s psychology research on the
historic Brown v. Board of Education civil rights case.
Before the time of Wundt and James, questions about the mind were
considered by philosophers. However, both Wundt and James helped create
psychology as a distinct scientific discipline. Wundt was a
structuralist, which meant he believed that our cognitive experience was
best understood by breaking that experience into its component parts. He
thought this was best accomplished by introspection.
William James was the first American psychologist, and he was a
proponent of functionalism. This particular perspective focused on how
mental activities served as adaptive responses to an organism’s
environment. Like Wundt, James also relied on introspection; however,
his research approach also incorporated more objective measures as well.
Sigmund Freud believed that understanding the unconscious mind was
absolutely critical to understand conscious behavior. This was
especially true for individuals that he saw who suffered from various
hysterias and neuroses. Freud relied on dream analysis, slips of the
tongue, and free association as means to access the unconscious.
Psychoanalytic theory remained a dominant force in clinical psychology
for several decades.
Gestalt psychology was very influential in Europe. Gestalt psychology
takes a holistic view of an individual and his experiences. As the Nazis
came to power in Germany, Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler immigrated to
the United States. Although they left their laboratories and their
research behind, they did introduce America to Gestalt ideas. Some of
the principles of Gestalt psychology are still very influential in the
study of sensation and perception.
One of the most influential schools of thought within psychology’s
history was behaviorism. Behaviorism focused on making psychology an
objective science by studying overt behavior and deemphasizing the
importance of unobservable mental processes. John Watson is often
considered the father of behaviorism, and B. F. Skinner’s contributions
to our understanding of principles of operant conditioning cannot be
underestimated.
As behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory took hold of so many aspects of
psychology, some began to become dissatisfied with psychology’s picture
of human nature. Thus, a humanistic movement within psychology began to
take hold. Humanism focuses on the potential of all people for good.
Both Maslow and Rogers were influential in shaping humanistic
psychology.
During the 1950s, the landscape of psychology began to change. A science
of behavior began to shift back to its roots of focus on mental
processes. The emergence of neuroscience and computer science aided this
transition. Ultimately, the cognitive revolution took hold, and people
came to realize that cognition was crucial to a true appreciation and
understanding of behavior.
Question
Based on your reading, which theorist would have been most likely
to agree with this statement: Perceptual phenomena are best
understood as a combination of their components.
William James
Max Wertheimer
Carl Rogers
Noam Chomsky {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
________ is most well-known for proposing his hierarchy of
needs.
Noam Chomsky
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Sigmund Freud {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Rogers believed that providing genuineness, empathy, and
________ in the therapeutic environment for his clients was
critical to their being able to deal with their problems.
structuralism
functionalism
Gestalt
unconditional positive regard {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The operant conditioning chamber (aka ________ box) is a device
used to study the principles of operant conditioning.
How did the object of study in psychology change over the history
of the field since the 19th century?
In its early days, psychology could be defined as the scientific
study of mind or mental processes. Over time, psychology began to
shift more towards the scientific study of behavior. However, as
the cognitive revolution took hold, psychology once again began to
focus on mental processes as necessary to the understanding of
behavior.
In part, what aspect of psychology was the behaviorist approach to
psychology a reaction to?
Behaviorists studied objectively observable behavior partly in
reaction to the psychologists of the mind who were studying things
that were not directly observable.
Freud is probably one of the most well-known historical figures in
psychology. Where have you encountered references to Freud or his
ideas about the role that the unconscious mind plays in
determining conscious behavior?
understanding the conscious experience through introspection
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Copyright Notice
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If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Have you ever wondered whether the violence you see on television
affects your behavior? Are you more likely to behave aggressively in
real life after watching people behave violently in dramatic situations
on the screen? Or, could seeing fictional violence actually get
aggression out of your system, causing you to be more peaceful? How are
children influenced by the media they are exposed to? A psychologist
interested in the relationship between behavior and exposure to violent
images might ask these very questions.
The topic of violence in the media today is contentious. Since ancient
times, humans have been concerned about the effects of new technologies
on our behaviors and thinking processes. The Greek philosopher Socrates,
for example, worried that writing—a new technology at that time—would
diminish people’s ability to remember because they could rely on written
records rather than committing information to memory. In our world of
quickly changing technologies, questions about the effects of media
continue to emerge. Many of us find ourselves with a strong opinion on
these issues, only to find the person next to us bristling with the
opposite view.
How can we go about finding answers that are supported not by mere
opinion, but by evidence that we can all agree on? The findings of
psychological research can help us navigate issues like this.
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This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain how
scientific research addresses questions about behavior * Discuss how
scientific research guides public policy * Appreciate how scientific
research can be important in making personal decisions
Scientific research is a critical tool for successfully navigating our
complex world. Without it, we would be forced to rely solely on
intuition, other people’s authority, and blind luck. While many of us
feel confident in our abilities to decipher and interact with the world
around us, history is filled with examples of how very wrong we can be
when we fail to recognize the need for evidence in supporting claims. At
various times in history, we would have been certain that the sun
revolved around a flat earth, that the earth’s continents did not move,
and that mental illness was caused by possession
([link]). It is through systematic
scientific research that we divest ourselves of our preconceived notions
and superstitions and gain an objective understanding of ourselves and
our world.
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_01_trephining}
The goal of all scientists is to better understand the world around
them. Psychologists focus their attention on understanding behavior, as
well as the cognitive (mental) and physiological (body) processes that
underlie behavior. In contrast to other methods that people use to
understand the behavior of others, such as intuition and personal
experience, the hallmark of scientific research is that there is
evidence to support a claim. Scientific knowledge is empirical{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}: It is grounded in objective, tangible
evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is
observing.
While behavior is observable, the mind is not. If someone is crying, we
can see behavior. However, the reason for the behavior is more difficult
to determine. Is the person crying due to being sad, in pain, or happy?
Sometimes we can learn the reason for someone’s behavior by simply
asking a question, like “Why are you crying?” However, there are
situations in which an individual is either uncomfortable or unwilling
to answer the question honestly, or is incapable of answering. For
example, infants would not be able to explain why they are crying. In
such circumstances, the psychologist must be creative in finding ways to
better understand behavior. This chapter explores how scientific
knowledge is generated, and how important that knowledge is in forming
decisions in our personal lives and in the public domain.
Trying to determine which theories are and are not accepted by the
scientific community can be difficult, especially in an area of research
as broad as psychology. More than ever before, we have an incredible
amount of information at our fingertips, and a simple internet search on
any given research topic might result in a number of contradictory
studies. In these cases, we are witnessing the scientific community
going through the process of reaching a consensus, and it could be quite
some time before a consensus emerges. For example, the hypothesized link
between exposure to media violence and subsequent aggression has been
debated in the scientific community for roughly 60 years. Even today, we
will find detractors, but a consensus is building. Several professional
organizations view media violence exposure as a risk factor for actual
violence, including the American Medical Association, the American
Psychiatric Association, and the American Psychological Association
(American Academy of Pediatrics, American Academy of Child & Adolescent
Psychiatry, American Psychological Association, American Medical
Association, American Academy of Family Physicians, American Psychiatric
Association, 2000).
In the meantime, we should strive to think critically about the
information we encounter by exercising a degree of healthy skepticism.
When someone makes a claim, we should examine the claim from a number of
different perspectives: what is the expertise of the person making the
claim, what might they gain if the claim is valid, does the claim seem
justified given the evidence, and what do other researchers think of the
claim? This is especially important when we consider how much
information in advertising campaigns and on the internet claims to be
based on “scientific evidence” when in actuality it is a belief or
perspective of just a few individuals trying to sell a product or draw
attention to their perspectives.
We should be informed consumers of the information made available to us
because decisions based on this information have significant
consequences. One such consequence can be seen in politics and public
policy. Imagine that you have been elected as the governor of your
state. One of your responsibilities is to manage the state budget and
determine how to best spend your constituents’ tax dollars. As the new
governor, you need to decide whether to continue funding the
D.A.R.E.pastehere (Drug Abuse Resistance
Education) program in public schools
([link]). This program typically involves
police officers coming into the classroom to educate students about the
dangers of becoming involved with alcohol and other drugs. According to
the D.A.R.E. website (www.dare.org), this program has been very popular
since its inception in 1983, and it is currently operating in 75% of
school districts in the United States and in more than 40 countries
worldwide. Sounds like an easy decision, right? However, on closer
review, you discover that the vast majority of research into this
program consistently suggests that participation has little, if any,
effect on whether or not someone uses alcohol or other drugs (Clayton,
Cattarello, & Johnstone, 1996; Ennett, Tobler, Ringwalt, & Flewelling,
1994; Lynam et al., 1999; Ringwalt, Ennett, & Holt, 1991). If you are
committed to being a good steward of taxpayer money, will you fund this
particular program, or will you try to find other programs that research
has consistently demonstrated to be effective?
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_01_DARE}
See also
Watch this news report to learn
more about some of the controversial issues surrounding the D.A.R.E.
program.
Ultimately, it is not just politicians who can benefit from using
research in guiding their decisions. We all might look to research from
time to time when making decisions in our lives. Imagine you just found
out that a close friend has breast cancer or that one of your young
relatives has recently been diagnosed with autism. In either case, you
want to know which treatment options are most successful with the fewest
side effects. How would you find that out? You would probably talk with
your doctor and personally review the research that has been done on
various treatment options—always with a critical eye to ensure that you
are as informed as possible.
In the end, research is what makes the difference between facts and
opinions. Facts{: data-type=“term”} are observable realities, and
opinions{: data-type=“term”} are personal judgments, conclusions,
or attitudes that may or may not be accurate. In the scientific
community, facts can be established only using evidence collected
through empirical research.
Scientific knowledge is advanced through a process known as the
scientific methodpastehere. Basically,
ideas (in the form of theories and hypotheses) are tested against the
real world (in the form of empirical observations), and those empirical
observations lead to more ideas that are tested against the real world,
and so on. In this sense, the scientific process is circular. The types
of reasoning within the circle are called deductive and inductive. In
deductive reasoning{: data-type=“term”}, ideas are tested against
the empirical world; in inductive reasoning{: data-type=“term”},
empirical observations lead to new ideas
([link]). These processes are
inseparable, like inhaling and exhaling, but different research
approaches place different emphasis on the deductive and inductive
aspects.
{: #CNX_Psych_02_01_Reasoning}
In the scientific context, deductive reasoning begins with a
generalization—one hypothesis—that is then used to reach logical
conclusions about the real world. If the hypothesis is correct, then the
logical conclusions reached through deductive reasoning should also be
correct. A deductive reasoning argument might go something like this:
All living things require energy to survive (this would be your
hypothesis). Ducks are living things. Therefore, ducks require energy to
survive (logical conclusion). In this example, the hypothesis is
correct; therefore, the conclusion is correct as well. Sometimes,
however, an incorrect hypothesis may lead to a logical but incorrect
conclusion. Consider this argument: all ducks are born with the ability
to see. Quackers is a duck. Therefore, Quackers was born with the
ability to see. Scientists use deductive reasoning to empirically test
their hypotheses. Returning to the example of the ducks, researchers
might design a study to test the hypothesis that if all living things
require energy to survive, then ducks will be found to require energy to
survive.
Deductive reasoning starts with a generalization that is tested against
real-world observations; however, inductive reasoning moves in the
opposite direction. Inductive reasoning uses empirical observations to
construct broad generalizations. Unlike deductive reasoning, conclusions
drawn from inductive reasoning may or may not be correct, regardless of
the observations on which they are based. For instance, you may notice
that your favorite fruits—apples, bananas, and oranges—all grow on
trees; therefore, you assume that all fruit must grow on trees. This
would be an example of inductive reasoning, and, clearly, the existence
of strawberries, blueberries, and kiwi demonstrate that this
generalization is not correct despite it being based on a number of
direct observations. Scientists use inductive reasoning to formulate
theories, which in turn generate hypotheses that are tested with
deductive reasoning. In the end, science involves both deductive and
inductive processes.
For example, case studies, which you will read about in the next
section, are heavily weighted on the side of empirical observations.
Thus, case studies are closely associated with inductive processes as
researchers gather massive amounts of observations and seek interesting
patterns (new ideas) in the data. Experimental research, on the other
hand, puts great emphasis on deductive reasoning.
We’ve stated that theories and hypotheses are ideas, but what sort of
ideas are they, exactly? A theory{: data-type=“term”} is a
well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed
phenomena. Theories are repeatedly checked against the world, but they
tend to be too complex to be tested all at once; instead, researchers
create hypotheses to test specific aspects of a theory.
A hypothesis{: data-type=“term”} is a testable prediction about
how the world will behave if our idea is correct, and it is often worded
as an if-then statement (e.g., if I study all night, I will get a
passing grade on the test). The hypothesis is extremely important
because it bridges the gap between the realm of ideas and the real
world. As specific hypotheses are tested, theories are modified and
refined to reflect and incorporate the result of these tests
[link].
{: #CNX_Psych_02_01_Method}
To see how this process works, let’s consider a specific theory and a
hypothesis that might be generated from that theory. As you’ll learn in
a later chapter, the James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that
emotional experience relies on the physiological arousal associated with
the emotional state. If you walked out of your home and discovered a
very aggressive snake waiting on your doorstep, your heart would begin
to race and your stomach churn. According to the James-Lange theory,
these physiological changes would result in your feeling of fear. A
hypothesis that could be derived from this theory might be that a person
who is unaware of the physiological arousal that the sight of the snake
elicits will not feel fear.
A scientific hypothesis is also falsifiable{: data-type=“term”},
or capable of being shown to be incorrect. Recall from the introductory
chapter that Sigmund Freudpastehere had
lots of interesting ideas to explain various human behaviors
([link]). However, a major criticism of
Freud’s theories is that many of his ideas are not falsifiable; for
example, it is impossible to imagine empirical observations that would
disprove the existence of the id, the ego, and the superego—the three
elements of personality described in Freud’s theories. Despite this,
Freud’s theories are widely taught in introductory psychology texts
because of their historical significance for personality psychology and
psychotherapy, and these remain the root of all modern forms of therapy.
{: #CNX_Psych_02_01_freud}
In contrast, the James-Lange theory does generate falsifiable
hypotheses, such as the one described above. Some individuals who suffer
significant injuries to their spinal columns are unable to feel the
bodily changes that often accompany emotional experiences. Therefore, we
could test the hypothesis by determining how emotional experiences
differ between individuals who have the ability to detect these changes
in their physiological arousal and those who do not. In fact, this
research has been conducted and while the emotional experiences of
people deprived of an awareness of their physiological arousal may be
less intense, they still experience emotion (Chwalisz, Diener, &
Gallagher, 1988).
Scientific research’s dependence on falsifiability allows for great
confidence in the information that it produces. Typically, by the time
information is accepted by the scientific community, it has been tested
repeatedly.
See also
Visit this website to apply the
scientific method and practice its steps by using them to solve a
murder mystery, determine why a student is in trouble, and design an
experiment to test house paint.
Scientists are engaged in explaining and understanding how the world
around them works, and they are able to do so by coming up with theories
that generate hypotheses that are testable and falsifiable. Theories
that stand up to their tests are retained and refined, while those that
do not are discarded or modified. In this way, research enables
scientists to separate fact from simple opinion. Having good information
generated from research aids in making wise decisions both in public
policy and in our personal lives.
Question
Scientific hypotheses are ________ and falsifiable.
observable
original
provable
testable {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ are defined as observable realities.
behaviors
facts
opinions
theories {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Scientific knowledge is ________.
intuitive
empirical
permanent
subjective {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
A major criticism of Freud’s early theories involves the fact that
his theories ________.
In this section, the D.A.R.E. program was described as an
incredibly popular program in schools across the United States
despite the fact that research consistently suggests that this
program is largely ineffective. How might one explain this
discrepancy?
There is probably tremendous political pressure to appear to be
hard on drugs. Therefore, even though D.A.R.E. might be
ineffective, it is a well-known program with which voters are
familiar.
The scientific method is often described as self-correcting and
cyclical. Briefly describe your understanding of the scientific
method with regard to these concepts.
This cyclical, self-correcting process is primarily a function of
the empirical nature of science. Theories are generated as
explanations of real-world phenomena. From theories, specific
hypotheses are developed and tested. As a function of this
testing, theories will be revisited and modified or refined to
generate new hypotheses that are again tested. This cyclical
process ultimately allows for more and more precise (and
presumably accurate) information to be collected.
Healthcare professionals cite an enormous number of health
problems related to obesity, and many people have an
understandable desire to attain a healthy weight. There are many
diet programs, services, and products on the market to aid those
who wish to lose weight. If a close friend was considering
purchasing or participating in one of these products, programs, or
services, how would you make sure your friend was fully aware of
the potential consequences of this decision? What sort of
information would you want to review before making such an
investment or lifestyle change yourself?
well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for
observed phenomena
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
different research methods used by psychologists * Discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of case studies, naturalistic observation,
surveys, and archival research * Compare longitudinal and
cross-sectional approaches to research
There are many research methods available to psychologists in their
efforts to understand, describe, and explain behavior and the cognitive
and biological processes that underlie it. Some methods rely on
observational techniques. Other approaches involve interactions between
the researcher and the individuals who are being studied—ranging from a
series of simple questions to extensive, in-depth interviews—to
well-controlled experiments.
Each of these research methods has unique strengths and weaknesses, and
each method may only be appropriate for certain types of research
questions. For example, studies that rely primarily on observation
produce incredible amounts of information, but the ability to apply this
information to the larger population is somewhat limited because of
small sample sizes. Survey research, on the other hand, allows
researchers to easily collect data from relatively large samples. While
this allows for results to be generalized to the larger population more
easily, the information that can be collected on any given survey is
somewhat limited and subject to problems associated with any type of
self-reported data. Some researchers conduct archival research by using
existing records. While this can be a fairly inexpensive way to collect
data that can provide insight into a number of research questions,
researchers using this approach have no control on how or what kind of
data was collected. All of the methods described thus far are
correlational in nature. This means that researchers can speak to
important relationships that might exist between two or more variables
of interest. However, correlational data cannot be used to make claims
about cause-and-effect relationships.
Correlational research can find a relationship between two variables,
but the only way a researcher can claim that the relationship between
the variables is cause and effect is to perform an experiment. In
experimental research, which will be discussed later in this chapter,
there is a tremendous amount of control over variables of interest.
While this is a powerful approach, experiments are often conducted in
very artificial settings. This calls into question the validity of
experimental findings with regard to how they would apply in real-world
settings. In addition, many of the questions that psychologists would
like to answer cannot be pursued through experimental research because
of ethical concerns.
In 2011, the New York Times published a feature story on Krista and
Tatiana Hogan, Canadian twin girls. These particular twins are unique
because Krista and Tatiana are conjoined twins, connected at the head.
There is evidence that the two girls are connected in a part of the
brain called the thalamus, which is a major sensory relay center. Most
incoming sensory information is sent through the thalamus before
reaching higher regions of the cerebral cortex for processing.
See also
To learn more about Krista and Tatiana, watch this New York Times
video about their lives.
The implications of this potential connection mean that it might be
possible for one twin to experience the sensations of the other twin.
For instance, if Krista is watching a particularly funny television
program, Tatiana might smile or laugh even if she is not watching the
program. This particular possibility has piqued the interest of many
neuroscientists who seek to understand how the brain uses sensory
information.
These twins represent an enormous resource in the study of the brain,
and since their condition is very rare, it is likely that as long as
their family agrees, scientists will follow these girls very closely
throughout their lives to gain as much information as possible (Dominus,
2011).
In observational research, scientists are conducting a clinical{:
data-type=“term”} or case study{: data-type=“term”} when they
focus on one person or just a few individuals. Indeed, some scientists
spend their entire careers studying just 10–20 individuals. Why would
they do this? Obviously, when they focus their attention on a very small
number of people, they can gain a tremendous amount of insight into
those cases. The richness of information that is collected in clinical
or case studies is unmatched by any other single research method. This
allows the researcher to have a very deep understanding of the
individuals and the particular phenomenon being studied.
If clinical or case studies provide so much information, why are they
not more frequent among researchers? As it turns out, the major benefit
of this particular approach is also a weakness. As mentioned earlier,
this approach is often used when studying individuals who are
interesting to researchers because they have a rare characteristic.
Therefore, the individuals who serve as the focus of case studies are
not like most other people. If scientists ultimately want to explain all
behavior, focusing attention on such a special group of people can make
it difficult to generalize any observations to the larger population as
a whole. Generalizing{: data-type=“term”} refers to the ability to
apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments
of society. Again, case studies provide enormous amounts of information,
but since the cases are so specific, the potential to apply what’s
learned to the average person may be very limited.
If you want to understand how behavior occurs, one of the best ways to
gain information is to simply observe the behavior in its natural
context. However, people might change their behavior in unexpected ways
if they know they are being observed. How do researchers obtain accurate
information when people tend to hide their natural behavior? As an
example, imagine that your professor asks everyone in your class to
raise their hand if they always wash their hands after using the
restroom. Chances are that almost everyone in the classroom will raise
their hand, but do you think hand washing after every trip to the
restroom is really that universal?
This is very similar to the phenomenon mentioned earlier in this
chapter: many individuals do not feel comfortable answering a question
honestly. But if we are committed to finding out the facts about hand
washing, we have other options available to us.
Suppose we send a classmate into the restroom to actually watch whether
everyone washes their hands after using the restroom. Will our observer
blend into the restroom environment by wearing a white lab coat, sitting
with a clipboard, and staring at the sinks? We want our researcher to be
inconspicuous—perhaps standing at one of the sinks pretending to put in
contact lenses while secretly recording the relevant information. This
type of observational study is called naturalistic observation{:
data-type=“term”}: observing behavior in its natural setting. To better
understand peer exclusion, Suzanne Fanger collaborated with colleagues
at the University of Texas to observe the behavior of preschool children
on a playground. How did the observers remain inconspicuous over the
duration of the study? They equipped a few of the children with wireless
microphones (which the children quickly forgot about) and observed while
taking notes from a distance. Also, the children in that particular
preschool (a “laboratory preschool”) were accustomed to having observers
on the playground (Fanger, Frankel, & Hazen, 2012).
It is critical that the observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous
as possible: when people know they are being watched, they are less
likely to behave naturally. If you have any doubt about this, ask
yourself how your driving behavior might differ in two situations: In
the first situation, you are driving down a deserted highway during the
middle of the day; in the second situation, you are being followed by a
police car down the same deserted highway
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_02_02_policecar}
It should be pointed out that naturalistic observation is not limited to
research involving humans. Indeed, some of the best-known examples of
naturalistic observation involve researchers going into the field to
observe various kinds of animals in their own environments. As with
human studies, the researchers maintain their distance and avoid
interfering with the animal subjects so as not to influence their
natural behaviors. Scientists have used this technique to study social
hierarchies and interactions among animals ranging from ground squirrels
to gorillas. The information provided by these studies is invaluable in
understanding how those animals organize socially and communicate with
one another. The anthropologist Jane Goodall{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis}, for example, spent nearly five decades observing the
behavior of chimpanzees in Africa
([link]). As an illustration of the types
of concerns that a researcher might encounter in naturalistic
observation, some scientists criticized Goodall for giving the chimps
names instead of referring to them by numbers—using names was thought to
undermine the emotional detachment required for the objectivity of the
study (McKie, 2010).
{: #CNX_Psych_02_02_goodall}
The greatest benefit of naturalistic observation is the validity{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}, or accuracy, of information collected
unobtrusively in a natural setting. Having individuals behave as they
normally would in a given situation means that we have a higher degree
of ecological validity, or realism, than we might achieve with other
research approaches. Therefore, our ability to generalize the findings
of the research to real-world situations is enhanced. If done correctly,
we need not worry about people or animals modifying their behavior
simply because they are being observed. Sometimes, people may assume
that reality programs give us a glimpse into authentic human behavior.
However, the principle of inconspicuous observation is violated as
reality stars are followed by camera crews and are interviewed on camera
for personal confessionals. Given that environment, we must doubt how
natural and realistic their behaviors are.
The major downside of naturalistic observation is that they are often
difficult to set up and control. In our restroom study, what if you
stood in the restroom all day prepared to record people’s hand washing
behavior and no one came in? Or, what if you have been closely observing
a troop of gorillas for weeks only to find that they migrated to a new
place while you were sleeping in your tent? The benefit of realistic
data comes at a cost. As a researcher you have no control of when (or
if) you have behavior to observe. In addition, this type of
observational research often requires significant investments of time,
money, and a good dose of luck.
Sometimes studies involve structured observation. In these cases, people
are observed while engaging in set, specific tasks. An excellent example
of structured observation comes from Strange Situation by Mary Ainsworth
(you will read more about this in the chapter on lifespan development).
The Strange Situation is a procedure used to evaluate attachment styles
that exist between an infant and caregiver. In this scenario, caregivers
bring their infants into a room filled with toys. The Strange Situation
involves a number of phases, including a stranger coming into the room,
the caregiver leaving the room, and the caregiver’s return to the room.
The infant’s behavior is closely monitored at each phase, but it is the
behavior of the infant upon being reunited with the caregiver that is
most telling in terms of characterizing the infant’s attachment style
with the caregiver.
Another potential problem in observational research is observer
bias{: data-type=“term”}. Generally, people who act as observers are
closely involved in the research project and may unconsciously skew
their observations to fit their research goals or expectations. To
protect against this type of bias, researchers should have clear
criteria established for the types of behaviors recorded and how those
behaviors should be classified. In addition, researchers often compare
observations of the same event by multiple observers, in order to test
inter-rater reliability{: data-type=“term”}: a measure of
reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different
observers.
Often, psychologists develop surveys as a means of gathering data.
Surveys{: data-type=“term”} are lists of questions to be answered
by research participants, and can be delivered as paper-and-pencil
questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally
([link]). Generally, the survey itself can
be completed in a short time, and the ease of administering a survey
makes it easy to collect data from a large number of people.
Surveys allow researchers to gather data from larger samples than may be
afforded by other research methods. A sample{:
data-type=“term”} is a subset of individuals selected from a
population{: data-type=“term”}, which is the overall group of
individuals that the researchers are interested in. Researchers study
the sample and seek to generalize their findings to the population.
{: #CNX_Psych_02_03_survey}
There is both strength and weakness of the survey in comparison to case
studies. By using surveys, we can collect information from a larger
sample of people. A larger sample is better able to reflect the actual
diversity of the population, thus allowing better generalizability.
Therefore, if our sample is sufficiently large and diverse, we can
assume that the data we collect from the survey can be generalized to
the larger population with more certainty than the information collected
through a case study. However, given the greater number of people
involved, we are not able to collect the same depth of information on
each person that would be collected in a case study.
Another potential weakness of surveys is something we touched on earlier
in this chapter: People don’t always give accurate responses. They may
lie, misremember, or answer questions in a way that they think makes
them look good. For example, people may report drinking less alcohol
than is actually the case.
Any number of research questions can be answered through the use of
surveys. One real-world example is the research conducted by Jenkins,
Ruppel, Kizer, Yehl, and Griffin (2012) about the backlash against the
US Arab-American community following the terrorist attacks of September
11, 2001. Jenkins and colleagues wanted to determine to what extent
these negative attitudes toward Arab-Americans still existed nearly a
decade after the attacks occurred. In one study, 140 research
participants filled out a survey with 10 questions, including questions
asking directly about the participant’s overt prejudicial attitudes
toward people of various ethnicities. The survey also asked indirect
questions about how likely the participant would be to interact with a
person of a given ethnicity in a variety of settings (such as, “How
likely do you think it is that you would introduce yourself to a person
of Arab-American descent?”). The results of the research suggested that
participants were unwilling to report prejudicial attitudes toward any
ethnic group. However, there were significant differences between their
pattern of responses to questions about social interaction with
Arab-Americans compared to other ethnic groups: they indicated less
willingness for social interaction with Arab-Americans compared to the
other ethnic groups. This suggested that the participants harbored
subtle forms of prejudice against Arab-Americans, despite their
assertions that this was not the case (Jenkins et al., 2012).
Some researchers gain access to large amounts of data without
interacting with a single research participant. Instead, they use
existing records to answer various research questions. This type of
research approach is known as archival research{:
data-type=“term”}. Archival research relies on looking at past records
or data sets to look for interesting patterns or relationships.
For example, a researcher might access the academic records of all
individuals who enrolled in college within the past ten years and
calculate how long it took them to complete their degrees, as well as
course loads, grades, and extracurricular involvement. Archival research
could provide important information about who is most likely to complete
their education, and it could help identify important risk factors for
struggling students ([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_02_03_records}
In comparing archival research to other research methods, there are
several important distinctions. For one, the researcher employing
archival research never directly interacts with research participants.
Therefore, the investment of time and money to collect data is
considerably less with archival research. Additionally, researchers have
no control over what information was originally collected. Therefore,
research questions have to be tailored so they can be answered within
the structure of the existing data sets. There is also no guarantee of
consistency between the records from one source to another, which might
make comparing and contrasting different data sets problematic.
Sometimes we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of
human development and lifespan. When we test the same group of
individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time, we are
conducting longitudinal research. Longitudinal research{:
data-type=“term”} is a research design in which data-gathering is
administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. For example, we
may survey a group of individuals about their dietary habits at age 20,
retest them a decade later at age 30, and then again at age 40.
Another approach is cross-sectional research. In cross-sectional
research{: data-type=“term”}, a researcher compares multiple
segments of the population at the same time. Using the dietary habits
example above, the researcher might directly compare different groups of
people by age. Instead a group of people for 20 years to see how their
dietary habits changed from decade to decade, the researcher would study
a group of 20-year-old individuals and compare them to a group of
30-year-old individuals and a group of 40-year-old individuals. While
cross-sectional research requires a shorter-term investment, it is also
limited by differences that exist between the different generations (or
cohorts) that have nothing to do with age per se, but rather reflect the
social and cultural experiences of different generations of individuals
make them different from one another.
To illustrate this concept, consider the following survey findings. In
recent years there has been significant growth in the popular support of
same-sex marriage. Many studies on this topic break down survey
participants into different age groups. In general, younger people are
more supportive of same-sex marriage than are those who are older
(Jones, 2013). Does this mean that as we age we become less open to the
idea of same-sex marriage, or does this mean that older individuals have
different perspectives because of the social climates in which they grew
up? Longitudinal research is a powerful approach because the same
individuals are involved in the research project over time, which means
that the researchers need to be less concerned with differences among
cohorts affecting the results of their study.
Often longitudinal studies are employed when researching various
diseases in an effort to understand particular risk factors. Such
studies often involve tens of thousands of individuals who are followed
for several decades. Given the enormous number of people involved in
these studies, researchers can feel confident that their findings can be
generalized to the larger population. The Cancer Prevention Study-3
(CPS-3) is one of a series of longitudinal studies sponsored by the
American Cancer Society aimed at determining predictive risk factors
associated with cancer. When participants enter the study, they complete
a survey about their lives and family histories, providing information
on factors that might cause or prevent the development of cancer. Then
every few years the participants receive additional surveys to complete.
In the end, hundreds of thousands of participants will be tracked over
20 years to determine which of them develop cancer and which do not.
Clearly, this type of research is important and potentially very
informative. For instance, earlier longitudinal studies sponsored by the
American Cancer Society provided some of the first scientific
demonstrations of the now well-established links between increased rates
of cancer and smoking (American Cancer Society, n.d.)
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_02_03_cigarettes}
As with any research strategy, longitudinal research is not without
limitations. For one, these studies require an incredible time
investment by the researcher and research participants. Given that some
longitudinal studies take years, if not decades, to complete, the
results will not be known for a considerable period of time. In addition
to the time demands, these studies also require a substantial financial
investment. Many researchers are unable to commit the resources
necessary to see a longitudinal project through to the end.
Research participants must also be willing to continue their
participation for an extended period of time, and this can be
problematic. People move, get married and take new names, get ill, and
eventually die. Even without significant life changes, some people may
simply choose to discontinue their participation in the project. As a
result, the attrition{: data-type=“term”} rates, or reduction in
the number of research participants due to dropouts, in longitudinal
studies are quite high and increases over the course of a project. For
this reason, researchers using this approach typically recruit many
participants fully expecting that a substantial number will drop out
before the end. As the study progresses, they continually check whether
the sample still represents the larger population, and make adjustments
as necessary.
The clinical or case study involves studying just a few individuals for
an extended period of time. While this approach provides an incredible
depth of information, the ability to generalize these observations to
the larger population is problematic. Naturalistic observation involves
observing behavior in a natural setting and allows for the collection of
valid, true-to-life information from realistic situations. However,
naturalistic observation does not allow for much control and often
requires quite a bit of time and money to perform. Researchers strive to
ensure that their tools for collecting data are both reliable
(consistent and replicable) and valid (accurate).
Surveys can be administered in a number of ways and make it possible to
collect large amounts of data quickly. However, the depth of information
that can be collected through surveys is somewhat limited compared to a
clinical or case study.
Archival research involves studying existing data sets to answer
research questions.
Longitudinal research has been incredibly helpful to researchers who
need to collect data on how people change over time. Cross-sectional
research compares multiple segments of a population at a single time.
Question
Sigmund Freud developed his theory of human personality by
conducting in-depth interviews over an extended period of time
with a few clients. This type of research approach is known as
a(n): ________.
archival research
case study
naturalistic observation
survey {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
________ involves observing behavior in individuals in their
natural environments.
archival research
case study
naturalistic observation
survey {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
The major limitation of case studies is ________.
the superficial nature of the information collected in this
approach
the lack of control that the researcher has in this approach
the inability to generalize the findings from this approach to
the larger population
the absence of inter-rater reliability {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
The benefit of naturalistic observation studies is ________.
the honesty of the data that is collected in a realistic
setting
how quick and easy these studies are to perform
the researcher’s capacity to make sure that data is collected
as efficiently as possible
the ability to determine cause and effect in this particular
approach {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Using existing records to try to answer a research question is
known as ________.
naturalistic observation
survey research
longitudinal research
archival research {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ involves following a group of research participants for
an extended period of time.
archival research
longitudinal research
naturalistic observation
cross-sectional research {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
A(n) ________ is a list of questions developed by a researcher
that can be administered in paper form.
archive
case Study
naturalistic observation
survey {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Longitudinal research is complicated by high rates of ________.
In this section, conjoined twins, Krista and Tatiana, were
described as being potential participants in a case study. In what
other circumstances would you think that this particular research
approach would be especially helpful and why?
Case studies might prove especially helpful using individuals who
have rare conditions. For instance, if one wanted to study
multiple personality disorder then the case study approach with
individuals diagnosed with multiple personality disorder would be
helpful.
Presumably, reality television programs aim to provide a realistic
portrayal of the behavior displayed by the characters featured in
such programs. This section pointed out why this is not really the
case. What changes could be made in the way that these programs
are produced that would result in more honest portrayals of
realistic behavior?
The behavior displayed on these programs would be more realistic
if the cameras were mounted in hidden locations, or if the people
who appear on these programs did not know when they were being
recorded.
Which of the research methods discussed in this section would be
best suited to research the effectiveness of the D.A.R.E. program
in preventing the use of alcohol and other drugs? Why?
Longitudinal research would be an excellent approach in studying
the effectiveness of this program because it would follow students
as they aged to determine if their choices regarding alcohol and
drugs were affected by their participation in the program.
Aside from biomedical research, what other areas of research could
greatly benefit by both longitudinal and archival research?
Answers will vary. Possibilities include research on hiring
practices based on human resource records, and research that
follows former prisoners to determine if the time that they were
incarcerated provided any sort of positive influence on their
likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior in the future.
A friend of yours is working part-time in a local pet store. Your
friend has become increasingly interested in how dogs normally
communicate and interact with each other, and is thinking of
visiting a local veterinary clinic to see how dogs interact in the
waiting room. After reading this section, do you think this is the
best way to better understand such interactions? Do you have any
suggestions that might result in more valid data?
As a college student, you are no doubt concerned about the grades
that you earn while completing your coursework. If you wanted to
know how overall GPA is related to success in life after college,
how would you choose to approach this question and what kind of
resources would you need to conduct this research?
list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as
paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or
conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a
large number of people
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain what a
correlation coefficient tells us about the relationship between
variables * Recognize that correlation does not indicate a
cause-and-effect relationship between variables * Discuss our
tendency to look for relationships between variables that do not
really exist * Explain random sampling and assignment of
participants into experimental and control groups * Discuss how
experimenter or participant bias could affect the results of an
experiment * Identify independent and dependent variables
Did you know that as sales in ice cream increase, so does the overall
rate of crime? Is it possible that indulging in your favorite flavor of
ice cream could send you on a crime spree? Or, after committing crime do
you think you might decide to treat yourself to a cone? There is no
question that a relationship exists between ice cream and crime (e.g.,
Harper, 2013), but it would be pretty foolish to decide that one thing
actually caused the other to occur.
It is much more likely that both ice cream sales and crime rates are
related to the temperature outside. When the temperature is warm, there
are lots of people out of their houses, interacting with each other,
getting annoyed with one another, and sometimes committing crimes. Also,
when it is warm outside, we are more likely to seek a cool treat like
ice cream. How do we determine if there is indeed a relationship between
two things? And when there is a relationship, how can we discern whether
it is attributable to coincidence or causation?
Correlation{: data-type=“term”} means that there is a relationship
between two or more variables (such as ice cream consumption and crime),
but this relationship does not necessarily imply cause and effect. When
two variables are correlated, it simply means that as one variable
changes, so does the other. We can measure correlation by calculating a
statistic known as a correlation coefficient. A correlation
coefficient{: data-type=“term”} is a number from -1 to +1 that
indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between
variables. The correlation coefficient is usually represented by the
letter r.
The number portion of the correlation coefficient indicates the strength
of the relationship. The closer the number is to 1 (be it negative or
positive), the more strongly related the variables are, and the more
predictable changes in one variable will be as the other variable
changes. The closer the number is to zero, the weaker the relationship,
and the less predictable the relationships between the variables
becomes. For instance, a correlation coefficient of 0.9 indicates a far
stronger relationship than a correlation coefficient of 0.3. If the
variables are not related to one another at all, the correlation
coefficient is 0. The example above about ice cream and crime is an
example of two variables that we might expect to have no relationship to
each other.
The sign—positive or negative—of the correlation coefficient indicates
the direction of the relationship
([link]). A positive correlation{:
data-type=“term”} means that the variables move in the same direction.
Put another way, it means that as one variable increases so does the
other, and conversely, when one variable decreases so does the other. A
negative correlation{: data-type=“term”} means that the variables
move in opposite directions. If two variables are negatively correlated,
a decrease in one variable is associated with an increase in the other
and vice versa.
The example of ice cream and crime rates is a positive correlation
because both variables increase when temperatures are warmer. Other
examples of positive correlations are the relationship between an
individual’s height and weight or the relationship between a person’s
age and number of wrinkles. One might expect a negative correlation to
exist between someone’s tiredness during the day and the number of hours
they slept the previous night: the amount of sleep decreases as the
feelings of tiredness increase. In a real-world example of negative
correlation, student researchers at the University of Minnesota found a
weak negative correlation (r = -0.29) between the average number of
days per week that students got fewer than 5 hours of sleep and their
GPA (Lowry, Dean, & Manders, 2010). Keep in mind that a negative
correlation is not the same as no correlation. For example, we would
probably find no correlation between hours of sleep and shoe size.
As mentioned earlier, correlations have predictive value. Imagine that
you are on the admissions committee of a major university. You are faced
with a huge number of applications, but you are able to accommodate only
a small percentage of the applicant pool. How might you decide who
should be admitted? You might try to correlate your current students’
college GPA with their scores on standardized tests like the SAT or ACT.
By observing which correlations were strongest for your current
students, you could use this information to predict relative success of
those students who have applied for admission into the university.
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_04_scatter}
See also
Manipulate this interactive
scatterplot to practice your
understanding of positive and negative correlation.
Correlational research is useful because it allows us to discover the
strength and direction of relationships that exist between two
variables. However, correlation is limited because establishing the
existence of a relationship tells us little about cause and
effect{: data-type=“term”}. While variables are sometimes correlated
because one does cause the other, it could also be that some other
factor, a confounding variable{: data-type=“term”}, is actually
causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest. In the ice
cream/crime rate example mentioned earlier, temperature is a confounding
variable that could account for the relationship between the two
variables.
Even when we cannot point to clear confounding variables, we should not
assume that a correlation between two variables implies that one
variable causes changes in another. This can be frustrating when a
cause-and-effect relationship seems clear and intuitive. Think back to
our discussion of the research done by the American Cancer Society and
how their research projects were some of the first demonstrations of the
link between smoking and cancer. It seems reasonable to assume that
smoking causes cancer, but if we were limited to correlational
researchpastehere, we would be overstepping
our bounds by making this assumption.
Unfortunately, people mistakenly make claims of causation as a function
of correlations all the time. Such claims are especially common in
advertisements and news stories. For example, recent research found that
people who eat cereal on a regular basis achieve healthier weights than
those who rarely eat cereal (Frantzen, Treviño, Echon, Garcia-Dominic, &
DiMarco, 2013; Barton et al., 2005). Guess how the cereal companies
report this finding. Does eating cereal really cause an individual to
maintain a healthy weight, or are there other possible explanations,
such as, someone at a healthy weight is more likely to regularly eat a
healthy breakfast than someone who is obese or someone who avoids meals
in an attempt to diet ([link])? While
correlational research is invaluable in identifying relationships among
variables, a major limitation is the inability to establish causality.
Psychologists want to make statements about cause and effect, but the
only way to do that is to conduct an experiment to answer a research
question. The next section describes how scientific experiments
incorporate methods that eliminate, or control for, alternative
explanations, which allow researchers to explore how changes in one
variable cause changes in another variable.
The temptation to make erroneous cause-and-effect statements based on
correlational research is not the only way we tend to misinterpret data.
We also tend to make the mistake of illusory correlations, especially
with unsystematic observations. Illusory correlations{:
data-type=“term”}, or false correlations, occur when people believe that
relationships exist between two things when no such relationship exists.
One well-known illusory correlation is the supposed effect that the
moon’s phases have on human behavior. Many people passionately assert
that human behavior is affected by the phase of the moon, and
specifically, that people act strangely when the moon is full
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_02_04_moon}
There is no denying that the moon exerts a powerful influence on our
planet. The ebb and flow of the ocean’s tides are tightly tied to the
gravitational forces of the moon. Many people believe, therefore, that
it is logical that we are affected by the moon as well. After all, our
bodies are largely made up of water. A meta-analysis of nearly 40
studies consistently demonstrated, however, that the relationship
between the moon and our behavior does not exist (Rotton & Kelly, 1985).
While we may pay more attention to odd behavior during the full phase of
the moon, the rates of odd behavior remain constant throughout the lunar
cycle.
Why are we so apt to believe in illusory correlations like this? Often
we read or hear about them and simply accept the information as valid.
Or, we have a hunch about how something works and then look for evidence
to support that hunch, ignoring evidence that would tell us our hunch is
false; this is known as confirmation bias{: data-type=“term”}.
Other times, we find illusory correlations based on the information that
comes most easily to mind, even if that information is severely limited.
And while we may feel confident that we can use these relationships to
better understand and predict the world around us, illusory correlations
can have significant drawbacks. For example, research suggests that
illusory correlations—in which certain behaviors are inaccurately
attributed to certain groups—are involved in the formation of
prejudicial attitudes that can ultimately lead to discriminatory
behavior (Fiedler, 2004).
As you’ve learned, the only way to establish that there is a
cause-and-effect relationship between two variables is to conduct a
scientific experimentpastehere. Experiment
has a different meaning in the scientific context than in everyday life.
In everyday conversation, we often use it to describe trying something
for the first time, such as experimenting with a new hair style or a new
food. However, in the scientific context, an experiment has precise
requirements for design and implementation.
In order to conduct an experiment, a researcher must have a specific
hypothesispastehere to be tested. As
you’ve learned, hypotheses can be formulated either through direct
observation of the real world or after careful review of previous
research. For example, if you think that children should not be allowed
to watch violent programming on television because doing so would cause
them to behave more violently, then you have basically formulated a
hypothesis—namely, that watching violent television programs causes
children to behave more violently. How might you have arrived at this
particular hypothesis? You may have younger relatives who watch cartoons
featuring characters using martial arts to save the world from
evildoers, with an impressive array of punching, kicking, and defensive
postures. You notice that after watching these programs for a while,
your young relatives mimic the fighting behavior of the characters
portrayed in the cartoon ([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_05_toygun}
These sorts of personal observations are what often lead us to formulate
a specific hypothesis, but we cannot use limited personal observations
and anecdotal evidence to rigorously test our hypothesis. Instead, to
find out if real-world data supports our hypothesis, we have to conduct
an experiment.
The most basic experimental design involves two groups: the experimental
group and the control group. The two groups are designed to be the same
except for one difference— experimental manipulation. The experimental
group{: data-type=“term”} gets the experimental manipulation—that
is, the treatment or variable being tested (in this case, violent TV
images)—and the control group{: data-type=“term”} does not. Since
experimental manipulation is the only difference between the
experimental and control groups, we can be sure that any differences
between the two are due to experimental manipulation rather than chance.
In our example of how violent television programming might affect
violent behavior in children, we have the experimental group view
violent television programming for a specified time and then measure
their violent behavior. We measure the violent behavior in our control
group after they watch nonviolent television programming for the same
amount of time. It is important for the control group to be treated
similarly to the experimental group, with the exception that the control
group does not receive the experimental manipulation. Therefore, we have
the control group watch non-violent television programming for the same
amount of time as the experimental group.
We also need to precisely define, or operationalize, what is considered
violent and nonviolent. An operational definition{:
data-type=“term”} is a description of how we will measure our variables,
and it is important in allowing others understand exactly how and what a
researcher measures in a particular experiment. In operationalizing
violent behavior, we might choose to count only physical acts like
kicking or punching as instances of this behavior, or we also may choose
to include angry verbal exchanges. Whatever we determine, it is
important that we operationalize violent behavior in such a way that
anyone who hears about our study for the first time knows exactly what
we mean by violence. This aids peoples’ ability to interpret our data as
well as their capacity to repeat our experiment should they choose to do
so.
Once we have operationalized what is considered violent television
programming and what is considered violent behavior from our experiment
participants, we need to establish how we will run our experiment. In
this case, we might have participants watch a 30-minute television
program (either violent or nonviolent, depending on their group
membership) before sending them out to a playground for an hour where
their behavior is observed and the number and type of violent acts is
recorded.
Ideally, the people who observe and record the children’s behavior are
unaware of who was assigned to the experimental or control group, in
order to control for experimenter bias. Experimenter bias{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the possibility that a researcher’s
expectations might skew the results of the study. Remember, conducting
an experiment requires a lot of planning, and the people involved in the
research project have a vested interest in supporting their hypotheses.
If the observers knew which child was in which group, it might influence
how much attention they paid to each child’s behavior as well as how
they interpreted that behavior. By being blind to which child is in
which group, we protect against those biases. This situation is a
single-blind study{: data-type=“term”}, meaning that one of the
groups (participants) are unaware as to which group they are in
(experiment or control group) while the researcher who developed the
experiment knows which participants are in each group.
In a double-blind study{: data-type=“term”}, both the researchers
and the participants are blind to group assignments. Why would a
researcher want to run a study where no one knows who is in which group?
Because by doing so, we can control for both experimenter and
participant expectations. If you are familiar with the phrase placebo
effect{: data-type=“term”}, you already have some idea as to why
this is an important consideration. The placebo effect occurs when
people’s expectations or beliefs influence or determine their experience
in a given situation. In other words, simply expecting something to
happen can actually make it happen.
The placebo effect is commonly described in terms of testing the
effectiveness of a new medication. Imagine that you work in a
pharmaceutical company, and you think you have a new drug that is
effective in treating depression. To demonstrate that your medication is
effective, you run an experiment with two groups: The experimental group
receives the medication, and the control group does not. But you don’t
want participants to know whether they received the drug or not.
Why is that? Imagine that you are a participant in this study, and you
have just taken a pill that you think will improve your mood. Because
you expect the pill to have an effect, you might feel better simply
because you took the pill and not because of any drug actually contained
in the pill—this is the placebo effect.
To make sure that any effects on mood are due to the drug and not due to
expectations, the control group receives a placebo (in this case a sugar
pill). Now everyone gets a pill, and once again neither the researcher
nor the experimental participants know who got the drug and who got the
sugar pill. Any differences in mood between the experimental and control
groups can now be attributed to the drug itself rather than to
experimenter bias or participant expectations
([link]).
In a research experiment, we strive to study whether changes in one
thing cause changes in another. To achieve this, we must pay attention
to two important variables, or things that can be changed, in any
experimental study: the independent variable and the dependent variable.
An independent variable{: data-type=“term”} is manipulated or
controlled by the experimenter. In a well-designed experimental study,
the independent variable is the only important difference between the
experimental and control groups. In our example of how violent
television programs affect children’s display of violent behavior, the
independent variable is the type of program—violent or nonviolent—viewed
by participants in the study ([link]).
A dependent variable{: data-type=“term”} is what the researcher
measures to see how much effect the independent variable had. In our
example, the dependent variable is the number of violent acts displayed
by the experimental participants.
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_05_variables}
We expect that the dependent variable will change as a function of the
independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable depends
on the independent variable. A good way to think about the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables is with this question:
What effect does the independent variable have on the dependent
variable? Returning to our example, what effect does watching a half
hour of violent television programming or nonviolent television
programming have on the number of incidents of physical aggression
displayed on the playground?
Now that our study is designed, we need to obtain a sample of
individuals to include in our experiment. Our study involves human
participants so we need to determine who to include.
Participants{: data-type=“term”} are the subjects of psychological
research, and as the name implies, individuals who are involved in
psychological research actively participate in the process. Often,
psychological research projects rely on college students to serve as
participants. In fact, the vast majority of research in psychology
subfields has historically involved students as research participants
(Sears, 1986; Arnett, 2008). But are college students truly
representative of the general population? College students tend to be
younger, more educated, more liberal, and less diverse than the general
population. Although using students as test subjects is an accepted
practice, relying on such a limited pool of research participants can be
problematic because it is difficult to generalize findings to the larger
population.
Our hypothetical experiment involves children, and we must first
generate a sample of child participants. Samples are used because
populations are usually too large to reasonably involve every member in
our particular experiment ([link]). If
possible, we should use a random sample (there are other types of
samples, but for the purposes of this chapter, we will focus on random
samples). A random sample{: data-type=“term”} is a subset of a
larger population in which every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected. Random samples are preferred because if the
sample is large enough we can be reasonably sure that the participating
individuals are representative of the larger population. This means that
the percentages of characteristics in the sample—sex, ethnicity,
socioeconomic level, and any other characteristics that might affect the
results—are close to those percentages in the larger population.
In our example, let’s say we decide our population of interest is fourth
graders. But all fourth graders is a very large population, so we need
to be more specific; instead we might say our population of interest is
all fourth graders in a particular city. We should include students from
various income brackets, family situations, races, ethnicities,
religions, and geographic areas of town. With this more manageable
population, we can work with the local schools in selecting a random
sample of around 200 fourth graders who we want to participate in our
experiment.
In summary, because we cannot test all of the fourth graders in a city,
we want to find a group of about 200 that reflects the composition of
that city. With a representative group, we can generalize our findings
to the larger population without fear of our sample being biased in some
way.
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_05_sample}
Now that we have a sample, the next step of the experimental process is
to split the participants into experimental and control groups through
random assignment. With random assignment{: data-type=“term”}, all
participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group.
There is statistical software that will randomly assign each of the
fourth graders in the sample to either the experimental or the control
group.
Random assignment is critical for sound experimental design{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}. With sufficiently large samples, random
assignment makes it unlikely that there are systematic differences
between the groups. So, for instance, it would be very unlikely that we
would get one group composed entirely of males, a given ethnic identity,
or a given religious ideology. This is important because if the groups
were systematically different before the experiment began, we would not
know the origin of any differences we find between the groups: Were the
differences preexisting, or were they caused by manipulation of the
independent variable? Random assignment allows us to assume that any
differences observed between experimental and control groups result from
the manipulation of the independent variable.
See also
Use this online tool to instantly
generate randomized numbers and to learn more about random sampling
and assignments.
While experiments allow scientists to make cause-and-effect claims, they
are not without problems. True experiments require the experimenter to
manipulate an independent variable, and that can complicate many
questions that psychologists might want to address. For instance,
imagine that you want to know what effect sex (the independent variable)
has on spatial memory (the dependent variable). Although you can
certainly look for differences between males and females on a task that
taps into spatial memory, you cannot directly control a person’s sex. We
categorize this type of research approach as quasi-experimental and
recognize that we cannot make cause-and-effect claims in these
circumstances.
Experimenters are also limited by ethical constraints. For instance, you
would not be able to conduct an experiment designed to determine if
experiencing abuse as a child leads to lower levels of self-esteem among
adults. To conduct such an experiment, you would need to randomly assign
some experimental participants to a group that receives abuse, and that
experiment would be unethical.
Once data is collected from both the experimental and the control
groups, a statistical analysis{: data-type=“term”} is conducted to
find out if there are meaningful differences between the two groups. A
statistical analysis determines how likely any difference found is due
to chance (and thus not meaningful). In psychology, group differences
are considered meaningful, or significant, if the odds that these
differences occurred by chance alone are 5 percent or less. Stated
another way, if we repeated this experiment 100 times, we would expect
to find the same results at least 95 times out of 100.
The greatest strength of experiments is the ability to assert that any
significant differences in the findings are caused by the independent
variable. This occurs because random selection, random assignment, and a
design that limits the effects of both experimenter bias and participant
expectancy should create groups that are similar in composition and
treatment. Therefore, any difference between the groups is attributable
to the independent variable, and now we can finally make a causal
statement. If we find that watching a violent television program results
in more violent behavior than watching a nonviolent program, we can
safely say that watching violent television programs causes an increase
in the display of violent behavior.
When psychologists complete a research project, they generally want to
share their findings with other scientists. The American Psychological
Association (APA) publishes a manual detailing how to write a paper for
submission to scientific journals. Unlike an article that might be
published in a magazine like Psychology Today, which targets a general
audience with an interest in psychology, scientific journals generally
publish peer-reviewed journal articles{: data-type=“term”} aimed
at an audience of professionals and scholars who are actively involved
in research themselves.
See also
The Online Writing Lab (OWL) at
Purdue University can walk you through the APA writing guidelines.
A peer-reviewed journal article is read by several other scientists
(generally anonymously) with expertise in the subject matter. These peer
reviewers provide feedback—to both the author and the journal
editor—regarding the quality of the draft. Peer reviewers look for a
strong rationale for the research being described, a clear description
of how the research was conducted, and evidence that the research was
conducted in an ethical manner. They also look for flaws in the study’s
design, methods, and statistical analyses. They check that the
conclusions drawn by the authors seem reasonable given the observations
made during the research. Peer reviewers also comment on how valuable
the research is in advancing the discipline’s knowledge. This helps
prevent unnecessary duplication of research findings in the scientific
literature and, to some extent, ensures that each research article
provides new information. Ultimately, the journal editor will compile
all of the peer reviewer feedback and determine whether the article will
be published in its current state (a rare occurrence), published with
revisions, or not accepted for publication.
Peer review provides some degree of quality control for psychological
research. Poorly conceived or executed studies can be weeded out, and
even well-designed research can be improved by the revisions suggested.
Peer review also ensures that the research is described clearly enough
to allow other scientists to replicate{: data-type=“term”} it,
meaning they can repeat the experiment using different samples to
determine reliability. Sometimes replications involve additional
measures that expand on the original finding. In any case, each
replication serves to provide more evidence to support the original
research findings. Successful replications of published research make
scientists more apt to adopt those findings, while repeated failures
tend to cast doubt on the legitimacy of the original article and lead
scientists to look elsewhere. For example, it would be a major
advancement in the medical field if a published study indicated that
taking a new drug helped individuals achieve a healthy weight without
changing their diet. But if other scientists could not replicate the
results, the original study’s claims would be questioned.
Tip
The Vaccine-Autism Myth and Retraction of Published Studies
Some scientists have claimed that routine childhood vaccines cause
some children to develop autism, and, in fact, several peer-reviewed
publications published research making these claims. Since the
initial reports, large-scale epidemiological research has suggested
that vaccinations are not responsible for causing autism and that it
is much safer to have your child vaccinated than not. Furthermore,
several of the original studies making this claim have since been
retracted.
A published piece of work can be rescinded when data is called into
question because of falsification, fabrication, or serious research
design problems. Once rescinded, the scientific community is informed
that there are serious problems with the original publication.
Retractions can be initiated by the researcher who led the study, by
research collaborators, by the institution that employed the
researcher, or by the editorial board of the journal in which the
article was originally published. In the vaccine-autism case, the
retraction was made because of a significant conflict of interest in
which the leading researcher had a financial interest in establishing
a link between childhood vaccines and autism (Offit, 2008).
Unfortunately, the initial studies received so much media attention
that many parents around the world became hesitant to have their
children vaccinated ([link]). For more
information about how the vaccine/autism story unfolded, as well as
the repercussions of this story, take a look at Paul Offit’s book,
Autism’s False Prophets: Bad Science, Risky Medicine, and the Search
for a Cure.
Reliability and validity are two important considerations that must be
made with any type of data collection. Reliability{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the ability to consistently produce a given
result. In the context of psychological research, this would mean that
any instruments or tools used to collect data do so in consistent,
reproducible ways.
Unfortunately, being consistent in measurement does not necessarily mean
that you have measured something correctly. To illustrate this concept,
consider a kitchen scale that would be used to measure the weight of
cereal that you eat in the morning. If the scale is not properly
calibrated, it may consistently under- or overestimate the amount of
cereal that’s being measured. While the scale is highly reliable in
producing consistent results (e.g., the same amount of cereal poured
onto the scale produces the same reading each time), those results are
incorrect. This is where validity comes into play. Validity{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the extent to which a given instrument or
tool accurately measures what it’s supposed to measure. While any valid
measure is by necessity reliable, the reverse is not necessarily true.
Researchers strive to use instruments that are both highly reliable and
valid.
How Valid Is the SAT?
Standardized tests like the SAT are supposed to measure an
individual’s aptitude for a college education, but how reliable and
valid are such tests? Research conducted by the College Board
suggests that scores on the SAT have high predictive validity for
first-year college students’ GPA (Kobrin, Patterson, Shaw, Mattern, &
Barbuti, 2008). In this context, predictive validity refers to the
test’s ability to effectively predict the GPA of college freshmen.
Given that many institutions of higher education require the SAT for
admission, this high degree of predictive validity might be
comforting.
However, the emphasis placed on SAT scores in college admissions has
generated some controversy on a number of fronts. For one, some
researchers assert that the SAT is a biased test that places minority
students at a disadvantage and unfairly reduces the likelihood of
being admitted into a college (Santelices & Wilson, 2010).
Additionally, some research has suggested that the predictive
validity of the SAT is grossly exaggerated in how well it is able to
predict the GPA of first-year college students. In fact, it has been
suggested that the SAT’s predictive validity may be overestimated by
as much as 150% (Rothstein, 2004). Many institutions of higher
education are beginning to consider de-emphasizing the significance
of SAT scores in making admission decisions (Rimer, 2008).
In 2014, College Board president David Coleman expressed his
awareness of these problems, recognizing that college success is more
accurately predicted by high school grades than by SAT scores. To
address these concerns, he has called for significant changes to the
SAT exam (Lewin, 2014).
A correlation is described with a correlation coefficient, r, which
ranges from -1 to 1. The correlation coefficient tells us about the
nature (positive or negative) and the strength of the relationship
between two or more variables. Correlations do not tell us anything
about causation—regardless of how strong the relationship is between
variables. In fact, the only way to demonstrate causation is by
conducting an experiment. People often make the mistake of claiming that
correlations exist when they really do not.
Researchers can test cause-and-effect hypotheses by conducting
experiments. Ideally, experimental participants are randomly selected
from the population of interest. Then, the participants are randomly
assigned to their respective groups. Sometimes, the researcher and the
participants are blind to group membership to prevent their expectations
from influencing the results.
In ideal experimental design, the only difference between the
experimental and control groups is whether participants are exposed to
the experimental manipulation. Each group goes through all phases of the
experiment, but each group will experience a different level of the
independent variable: the experimental group is exposed to the
experimental manipulation, and the control group is not exposed to the
experimental manipulation. The researcher then measures the changes that
are produced in the dependent variable in each group. Once data is
collected from both groups, it is analyzed statistically to determine if
there are meaningful differences between the groups.
Psychologists report their research findings in peer-reviewed journal
articles. Research published in this format is checked by several other
psychologists who serve as a filter separating ideas that are supported
by evidence from ideas that are not. Replication has an important role
in ensuring the legitimacy of published research. In the long run, only
those findings that are capable of being replicated consistently will
achieve consensus in the scientific community.
Question
Height and weight are positively correlated. This means that:
There is no relationship between height and weight.
Usually, the taller someone is, the thinner they are.
Usually, the shorter someone is, the heavier they are.
As height increases, typically weight increases. {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Which of the following correlation coefficients indicates the
strongest relationship between two variables?
-.90
-.50
+.80
+.25 {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Which statement best illustrates a negative correlation between
the number of hours spent watching TV the week before an exam and
the grade on that exam?
Watching too much television leads to poor exam performance.
Smart students watch less television.
Viewing television interferes with a student’s ability to
prepare for the upcoming exam.
Students who watch more television perform more poorly on their
exams. {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The correlation coefficient indicates the weakest relationship
when ________.
it is closest to 0
it is closest to -1
it is positive
it is negative {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
________ means that everyone in the population has the same
likelihood of being asked to participate in the study.
operationalizing
placebo effect
random assignment
random sampling {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The ________ is controlled by the experimenter, while the
________ represents the information collected and statistically
analyzed by the experimenter.
dependent variable; independent variable
independent variable; dependent variable
placebo effect; experimenter bias
experiment bias; placebo effect {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Researchers must ________ important concepts in their studies so
others would have a clear understanding of exactly how those
concepts were defined.
randomly assign
randomly select
operationalize
generalize {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Sometimes, researchers will administer a(n) ________ to
participants in the control group to control for the effects that
participant expectation might have on the experiment.
Earlier in this section, we read about research suggesting that
there is a correlation between eating cereal and weight. Cereal
companies that present this information in their advertisements
could lead someone to believe that eating more cereal causes
healthy weight. Why would they make such a claim and what
arguments could you make to counter this cause-and-effect claim?
The cereal companies are trying to make a profit, so framing the
research findings in this way would improve their bottom line.
However, it could be that people who forgo more fatty options for
breakfast are health conscious and engage in a variety of other
behaviors that help them maintain a healthy weight.
Recently a study was published in the journal, Nutrition and
Cancer, which established a negative correlation between coffee
consumption and breast cancer. Specifically, it was found that
women consuming more than 5 cups of coffee a day were less likely
to develop breast cancer than women who never consumed coffee
(Lowcock, Cotterchio, Anderson, Boucher, & El-Sohemy, 2013).
Imagine you see a newspaper story about this research that says,
“Coffee Protects Against Cancer.” Why is this headline misleading
and why would a more accurate headline draw less interest?
Using the word protects seems to suggest causation as a function
of correlation. If the headline were more accurate, it would be
less interesting because indicating that two things are associated
is less powerful than indicating that doing one thing causes a
change in the other.
Sometimes, true random sampling can be very difficult to obtain.
Many researchers make use of convenience samples as an
alternative. For example, one popular convenience sample would
involve students enrolled in Introduction to Psychology courses.
What are the implications of using this sampling technique?
If research is limited to students enrolled in Introduction to
Psychology courses, then our ability to generalize to the larger
population would be dramatically reduced. One could also argue
that students enrolled in Introduction to Psychology courses may
not be representative of the larger population of college students
at their school, much less the larger general population.
Peer review is an important part of publishing research findings
in many scientific disciplines. This process is normally conducted
anonymously; in other words, the author of the article being
reviewed does not know who is reviewing the article, and the
reviewers are unaware of the author’s identity. Why would this be
an important part of this process?
Anonymity protects against personal biases interfering with the
reviewer’s opinion of the research. Allowing the reviewer to
remain anonymous would mean that they can be honest in their
appraisal of the manuscript without fear of reprisal.
We all have a tendency to make illusory correlations from time to
time. Try to think of an illusory correlation that is held by you,
a family member, or a close friend. How do you think this illusory
correlation came about and what can be done in the future to
combat them?
Are there any questions about human or animal behavior that you
would really like to answer? Generate a hypothesis and briefly
describe how you would conduct an experiment to answer your
question.
unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of
interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one
variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality,
the outside factor causes changes in both variables ^
serves as a basis for comparison and controls for chance factors
that might influence the results of the study—by holding such
factors constant across groups so that the experimental
manipulation is the only difference between groups ^
group designed to answer the research question; experimental
manipulation is the only difference between the experimental and
control groups, so any differences between the two are due to
experimental manipulation rather than chance ^
variable that is influenced or controlled by the experimenter; in
a sound experimental study, the independent variable is the only
important difference between the experimental and control group ^
two variables change in different directions, with one becoming
larger as the other becomes smaller; a negative correlation is not
the same thing as no correlation ^
article read by several other scientists (usually anonymously)
with expertise in the subject matter, who provide feedback
regarding the quality of the manuscript before it is accepted for
publication ^
accuracy of a given result in measuring what it is designed to
measure
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Discuss how
research involving human subjects is regulated * Summarize the
processes of informed consent and debriefing * Explain how research
involving animal subjects is regulated
Today, scientists agree that good research is ethical in nature and is
guided by a basic respect for human dignity and safety. However, as you
will read in the feature box, this has not always been the case. Modern
researchers must demonstrate that the research they perform is ethically
sound. This section presents how ethical considerations affect the
design and implementation of research conducted today.
Any experiment involving the participation of human subjects is governed
by extensive, strict guidelines designed to ensure that the experiment
does not result in harm. Any research institution that receives federal
support for research involving human participants must have access to an
institutional review board (IRB){: data-type=“term”}. The IRB is a
committee of individuals often made up of members of the institution’s
administration, scientists, and community members
([link]). The purpose of the IRB is to review
proposals for research that involves human participants. The IRB reviews
these proposals with the principles mentioned above in mind, and
generally, approval from the IRB is required in order for the experiment
to proceed.
{: #CNX_Psych_02_06_irb}
An institution’s IRB requires several components in any experiment it
approves. For one, each participant must sign an informed consent form
before they can participate in the experiment. An informed
consent{: data-type=“term”} form provides a written description of
what participants can expect during the experiment, including potential
risks and implications of the research. It also lets participants know
that their involvement is completely voluntary and can be discontinued
without penalty at any time. Furthermore, the informed consent
guarantees that any data collected in the experiment will remain
completely confidential. In cases where research participants are under
the age of 18, the parents or legal guardians are required to sign the
informed consent form.
See also
Visit this website to see an
example of a consent form.
While the informed consent form should be as honest as possible in
describing exactly what participants will be doing, sometimes deception
is necessary to prevent participants’ knowledge of the exact research
question from affecting the results of the study. Deception{:
data-type=“term”} involves purposely misleading experiment participants
in order to maintain the integrity of the experiment, but not to the
point where the deception could be considered harmful. For example, if
we are interested in how our opinion of someone is affected by their
attire, we might use deception in describing the experiment to prevent
that knowledge from affecting participants’ responses. In cases where
deception is involved, participants must receive a full
debriefing{: data-type=“term”} upon conclusion of the
study—complete, honest information about the purpose of the experiment,
how the data collected will be used, the reasons why deception was
necessary, and information about how to obtain additional information
about the study.
See also
Visit this website to
learn more about the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.
Many psychologists conduct research involving animal subjects. Often,
these researchers use rodents ([link]) or
birds as the subjects of their experiments—the APA estimates that 90% of
all animal researchpastehere in psychology
uses these species (American Psychological Association, n.d.). Because
many basic processes in animals are sufficiently similar to those in
humans, these animals are acceptable substitutes for research that would
be considered unethical in human participants.
{: #CNX_Psych_02_06_rat}
This does not mean that animal researchers are immune to ethical
concerns. Indeed, the humane and ethical treatment of animal research
subjects is a critical aspect of this type of research. Researchers must
design their experiments to minimize any pain or distress experienced by
animals serving as research subjects.
Whereas IRBs review research proposals that involve human participants,
animal experimental proposals are reviewed by an Institutional Animal
Care and Use Committee (IACUC){: data-type=“term”}. An IACUC
consists of institutional administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and
community members. This committee is charged with ensuring that all
experimental proposals require the humane treatment of animal research
subjects. It also conducts semi-annual inspections of all animal
facilities to ensure that the research protocols are being followed. No
animal research project can proceed without the committee’s approval.
Ethics in research is an evolving field, and some practices that were
accepted or tolerated in the past would be considered unethical today.
Researchers are expected to adhere to basic ethical guidelines when
conducting experiments that involve human participants. Any experiment
involving human participants must be approved by an IRB. Participation
in experiments is voluntary and requires informed consent of the
participants. If any deception is involved in the experiment, each
participant must be fully debriefed upon the conclusion of the study.
Animal research is also held to a high ethical standard. Researchers who
use animals as experimental subjects must design their projects so that
pain and distress are minimized. Animal research requires the approval
of an IACUC, and all animal facilities are subject to regular
inspections to ensure that animals are being treated humanely.
Question 1
________ is to animal research as ________ is to human
research.
informed consent; deception
IACUC; IRB
IRB; IACUC
deception; debriefing {: type=“a”}
B
Question 2
Researchers might use ________ when providing participants with
the full details of the experiment could skew their responses.
informed consent
deception
ethics
debriefing {: type=“a”}
B
A person’s participation in a research project must be ________.
random
rewarded
voluntary
public {: type=“a”}
Before participating in an experiment, individuals should read and
Some argue that animal research is inherently flawed in terms of
being ethical because unlike human participants, animals do not
consent to be involved in research. Do you agree with this
perspective? Given that animals do not consent to be involved in
research projects, what sorts of extra precautions should be taken
to ensure that they receive the most humane treatment possible?
In general, the fact that consent cannot be obtained from animal
research subjects places extra responsibility on the researcher to
ensure that the animal is treated as humanely as possible and to
respect the sacrifice that the animal is making for the
advancement of science. Like human research, the animals
themselves should also receive some of the benefits of the
research, and they do in the form of advanced veterinary medicine,
and so on.
At the end of the last section, you were asked to design a basic
experiment to answer some question of interest. What ethical
considerations should be made with the study you proposed to
ensure that your experiment would conform to the scientific
community’s expectations of ethical research?
The research should be designed in such a way to adhere to the
principles described in this section depending on the type of
study that was proposed.
Take a few minutes to think about all of the advancements that our
society has achieved as a function of research involving animal
subjects. How have you, a friend, or a family member benefited
directly from this kind of research?
process of informing a research participant about what to expect
during an experiment, any risks involved, and the implications of
the research, and then obtaining the person’s consent to
participate ^
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
committee of administrators, scientists, veterinarians, and
community members that reviews proposals for research involving
non-human animals ^
committee of administrators, scientists, and community members
that reviews proposals for research involving human participants
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Have you ever taken a device apart to find out how it works? Many of us
have done so, whether to attempt a repair or simply to satisfy our
curiosity. A device’s internal workings are often distinct from its user
interface on the outside. For example, we don’t think about microchips
and circuits when we turn up the volume on a mobile phone; instead, we
think about getting the volume just right. Similarly, the inner workings
of the human body are often distinct from the external expression of
those workings. It is the job of psychologists to find the connection
between these—for example, to figure out how the firings of millions of
neurons become a thought.
This chapter strives to explain the biological mechanisms that underlie
behavior. These physiological and anatomical foundations are the basis
for many areas of psychology. In this chapter, you will learn how
genetics influence both physiological and psychological traits. You will
become familiar with the structure and function of the nervous system.
And, finally, you will learn how the nervous system interacts with the
endocrine system.
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Confer, J. C., Easton, J. A., Fleischman, D. S., Goetz, C. D., Lewis, D.
M. G, Perilloux, C., & Buss, D. M. (2010). Evolutionary psychology:
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This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the basic
principles of the theory of evolution by natural selection *
Describe the differences between genotype and phenotype * Discuss
how gene-environment interactions are critical for expression of
physical and psychological characteristics
Psychological researchers study genetics in order to better understand
the biological basis that contributes to certain behaviors. While all
humans share certain biological mechanisms, we are each unique. And
while our bodies have many of the same parts—brains and hormones and
cells with genetic codes—these are expressed in a wide variety of
behaviors, thoughts, and reactions.
Why do two people infected by the same disease have different outcomes:
one surviving and one succumbing to the ailment? How are genetic
diseases passed through family lines? Are there genetic components to
psychological disorders, such as depression or schizophrenia? To what
extent might there be a psychological basis to health conditions such as
childhood obesity?
To explore these questions, let’s start by focusing on a specific
disease, sickle-cell anemia, and
how it might affect two infected sisters. Sickle-cell anaemia is a
genetic condition in which red blood cells, which are normally round,
take on a crescent-like shape
([link]). The changed shape of these
cells affects how they function: sickle-shaped cells can clog blood
vessels and block blood flow, leading to high fever, severe pain,
swelling, and tissue damage.
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_SickleCell}
Many people with sickle-cell anemia—and the particular genetic mutation
that causes it—die at an early age. While the notion of “survival of the
fittest” may suggest that people suffering from this disease have a low
survival rate and therefore the disease will become less common, this is
not the case. Despite the negative evolutionary effects associated with
this genetic mutation, the sickle-cell gene remains relatively common
among people of African descent. Why is this? The explanation is
illustrated with the following scenario.
Imagine two young women—Luwi and Sena—sisters in rural Zambia, Africa.
Luwi carries the gene for sickle-cell anemia; Sena does not carry the
gene. Sickle-cell carriers have one copy of the sickle-cell gene but do
not have full-blown sickle-cell anemia. They experience symptoms only if
they are severely dehydrated or are deprived of oxygen (as in mountain
climbing). Carriers are thought to be immune from malaria (an often
deadly disease that is widespread in tropical climates) because changes
in their blood chemistry and immune functioning prevent the malaria
parasite from having its effects cite:p (Gong, Parikh, Rosenthal, & Greenhouse,
2013). However, full-blown sickle-cell anemia, with two copies of the
sickle-cell gene, does not provide immunity to malaria.
While walking home from school, both sisters are bitten by mosquitos
carrying the malaria parasite. Luwi does not get malaria because she
carries the sickle-cell mutation. Sena, on the other hand, develops
malaria and dies just two weeks later. Luwi survives and eventually has
children, to whom she may pass on the sickle-cell mutation.
See also
Visit this website to learn more
about how a mutation in DNA leads to sickle-cell anemia.
Malaria is rare in the United States, so the sickle-cell gene benefits
nobody: the gene manifests primarily in health problems—minor in
carriers, severe in the full-blown disease—with no health benefits for
carriers. However, the situation is quite different in other parts of
the world. In parts of Africa where malaria is prevalent, having the
sickle-cell mutation does provide health benefits for carriers
(protection from malaria).
This is precisely the situation that Charles Darwin describes in the theory of evolution by natural selection
([link]). In simple terms, the theory
states that organisms that are better suited for their environment will
survive and reproduce, while those that are poorly suited for their
environment will die off. In our example, we can see that as a carrier,
Luwi’s mutation is highly adaptive in her African homeland; however, if
she resided in the United States (where malaria is much less common),
her mutation could prove costly—with a high probability of the disease
in her descendants and minor health problems of her own.
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_Darwin}
Tip
Two Perspectives on Genetics and Behavior
It’s easy to get confused about two fields that study the interaction
of genes and the environment, such as the fields of evolutionary psychology and behavioral genetics. How can we tell them
apart?
In both fields, it is understood that genes not only code for
particular traits, but also contribute to certain patterns of
cognition and behavior. Evolutionary psychology focuses on how
universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved
over time. Therefore, variations in cognition and behavior would make
individuals more or less successful in reproducing and passing those
genes to their offspring. Evolutionary psychologists study a variety
of psychological phenomena that may have evolved as adaptations,
including fear response, food preferences, mate selection, and
cooperative behaviors (Confer et al., 2010).
Whereas evolutionary psychologists focus on universal patterns that
evolved over millions of years, behavioral geneticists study how
individual differences arise, in the present, through the interaction
of genes and the environment. When studying human behavior,
behavioral geneticists often employ twin and adoption studies to
research questions of interest. Twin studies compare the rates that a
given behavioral trait is shared among identical and fraternal twins;
adoption studies compare those rates among biologically related
relatives and adopted relatives. Both approaches provide some insight
into the relative importance of genes and environment for the
expression of a given trait.
See also
Watch this
interview with
renowned evolutionary psychologist{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} David Buss for an explanation of how a psychologist
approaches evolution and how this approach fits within the field of
social science.
Genetic variation, the genetic difference between individuals, is what
contributes to a species’ adaptation to its environment. In humans,
genetic variation begins with an egg, about 100 million sperm, and
fertilization. Fertile women ovulate roughly once per month, releasing
an egg from follicles in the ovary. During the egg’s journey from the
ovary through the fallopian tubes, to the uterus, a sperm may fertilize
an egg.
The egg and the sperm each contain 23 chromosomes. Chromosomes{:
data-type=“term”} are long strings of genetic material known as
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA){: data-type=“term”}. DNA is a
helix-shaped molecule made up of nucleotide base pairs. In each
chromosome, sequences of DNA make up genes{: data-type=“term”}
that control or partially control a number of visible characteristics,
known as traits, such as eye color, hair color, and so on. A single gene
may have multiple possible variations, or alleles. An allele{:
data-type=“term”} is a specific version of a gene. So, a given gene may
code for the trait of hair color, and the different alleles of that gene
affect which hair color an individual has.
When a sperm and egg fuse, their 23 chromosomes pair up and create a
zygote with 23 pairs of chromosomes. Therefore, each parent contributes
half the genetic information carried by the offspring; the resulting
physical characteristics of the offspring (called the phenotype) are
determined by the interaction of genetic material supplied by the
parents (called the genotype). A person’s genotype{:
data-type=“term”} is the genetic makeup of that individual.
Phenotype{: data-type=“term”}, on the other hand, refers to the
individual’s inherited physical characteristics, which are a combination
of genetic and environmental influences
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_03_01_GenoPheno}
Most traits are controlled by multiple genes, but some traits are
controlled by one gene. A characteristic like cleft chin{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}, for example, is influenced by a single
gene from each parent. In this example, we will call the gene for cleft
chin “B,” and the gene for smooth chin “b.” Cleft chin is a dominant
trait, which means that having the dominant allele{:
data-type=“term”} either from one parent (Bb) or both parents (BB) will
always result in the phenotype associated with the dominant allele. When
someone has two copies of the same allele, they are said to be
homozygous{: data-type=“term”} for that allele. When someone has a
combination of alleles for a given gene, they are said to be
heterozygous{: data-type=“term”}. For example, smooth chin is a
recessive trait, which means that an individual will only display the
smooth chin phenotype if they are homozygous for that recessive
allele{: data-type=“term”} (bb).
Imagine that a woman with a cleft chin mates with a man with a smooth
chin. What type of chin will their child have? The answer to that
depends on which alleles each parent carries. If the woman is homozygous
for cleft chin (BB), her offspring will always have cleft chin. It gets
a little more complicated, however, if the mother is heterozygous for
this gene (Bb). Since the father has a smooth chin—therefore homozygous
for the recessive allele (bb)—we can expect the offspring to have a 50%
chance of having a cleft chin and a 50% chance of having a smooth chin
([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_Punnett1}
Sickle-cell anemia is just one of many genetic disorders caused by the
pairing of two recessive genes. For example, phenylketonuria{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} (PKU) is a condition in which individuals
lack an enzyme that normally converts harmful amino acids into harmless
byproducts. If someone with this condition goes untreated, he or she
will experience significant deficits in cognitive function, seizures,
and increased risk of various psychiatric disorders. Because PKU is a
recessive trait, each parent must have at least one copy of the
recessive allele in order to produce a child with the condition
([link]).
So far, we have discussed traits that involve just one gene, but few
human characteristics are controlled by a single gene. Most traits are
polygenic{: data-type=“term”}: controlled by more than one gene.
Height is one example of a polygenic trait, as are skin color and
weight.
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_Punnett2}
Where do harmful genes that contribute to diseases like PKU come from?
Gene mutations provide one source of harmful genes. A mutation{:
data-type=“term”} is a sudden, permanent change in a gene. While many
mutations can be harmful or lethal, once in a while, a mutation benefits
an individual by giving that person an advantage over those who do not
have the mutation. Recall that the theory of evolution asserts that
individuals best adapted to their particular environments are more
likely to reproduce and pass on their genes to future generations. In
order for this process to occur, there must be competition—more
technically, there must be variability in genes (and resultant traits)
that allow for variation in adaptability to the environment. If a
population consisted of identical individuals, then any dramatic changes
in the environment would affect everyone in the same way, and there
would be no variation in selection. In contrast, diversity in genes and
associated traits allows some individuals to perform slightly better
than others when faced with environmental change. This creates a
distinct advantage for individuals best suited for their environments in
terms of successful reproduction and genetic transmission.
Genes do not exist in a vacuum. Although we are all biological
organisms, we also exist in an environment that is incredibly important
in determining not only when and how our genes express themselves, but
also in what combination. Each of us represents a unique interaction
between our genetic makeup and our environment; range of reaction is one
way to describe this interaction. Range of reaction{:
data-type=“term”} asserts that our genes set the boundaries within which
we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to
determine where in that range we will fall. For example, if an
individual’s genetic makeup predisposes her to high levels of
intellectual potential and she is reared in a rich, stimulating
environment, then she will be more likely to achieve her full potential
than if she were raised under conditions of significant deprivation.
According to the concept of range of reaction, genes set definite limits
on potential, and environment determines how much of that potential is
achieved. Some disagree with this theory and argue that genes do not set
a limit on a person’s potential.
Another perspective on the interaction between genes and the environment
is the concept of genetic environmental correlation{:
data-type=“term”}. Stated simply, our genes influence our environment,
and our environment influences the expression of our genes
([link]). Not only do our genes and
environment interact, as in range of reaction, but they also influence
one another bidirectionally. For example, the child of an NBA player
would probably be exposed to basketball from an early age. Such exposure
might allow the child to realize his or her full genetic, athletic
potential. Thus, the parents’ genes, which the child shares, influence
the child’s environment, and that environment, in turn, is well suited
to support the child’s genetic potential.
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_GeneEnviro}
In another approach to gene-environment interactions, the field of
epigenetics{: data-type=“term”} looks beyond the genotype itself
and studies how the same genotype can be expressed in different ways. In
other words, researchers study how the same genotype can lead to very
different phenotypes. As mentioned earlier, gene expression is often
influenced by environmental context in ways that are not entirely
obvious. For instance, identical twins share the same genetic
information (identical twins{: data-type=“term”} develop from a
single fertilized egg that split, so the genetic material is exactly the
same in each; in contrast, fraternal twins{: data-type=“term”}
develop from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm, so the
genetic material varies as with non-twin siblings). But even with
identical genes, there remains an incredible amount of variability in
how gene expression can unfold over the course of each twin’s life.
Sometimes, one twin will develop a disease and the other will not. In
one example, Tiffany, an identical twin, died from cancer at age 7, but
her twin, now 19 years old, has never had cancer. Although these
individuals share an identical genotype, their phenotypes differ as a
result of how that genetic information is expressed over time. The
epigenetic perspective is very different from range of reaction, because
here the genotype is not fixed and limited.
See also
Visit this site for an engaging
video primer on the epigenetics{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} of twin studies.
Genes affect more than our
physical characteristics. Indeed, scientists have found genetic linkages
to a number of behavioral characteristics, ranging from basic
personality traits to sexual orientation to spirituality (for examples,
see Mustanski et al., 2005; Comings, Gonzales, Saucier, Johnson, &
MacMurray, 2000). Genes are also associated with temperament and a
number of psychological disorders, such as depression and schizophrenia.
So while it is true that genes provide the biological blueprints for our
cells, tissues, organs, and body, they also have significant impact on
our experiences and our behaviors.
Let’s look at the following findings regarding schizophrenia in light of
our three views of gene-environment interactions. Which view do you
think best explains this evidence?
In a study of people who were given up for adoption, adoptees whose
biological mothers had schizophrenia and who had been raised in a
disturbed family environment were much more likely to develop
schizophrenia or another
psychotic disorder than were any of the other groups in the study:
Of adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia (high genetic risk) and who were raised in disturbed family environments, 36.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia.
Of adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia (high genetic risk) and who were raised in healthy family environments, 5.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia.
Of adoptees with a low genetic risk (whose mothers did not have schizophrenia) and who were raised in disturbed family environments, 5.3% were likely to develop schizophrenia.
Of adoptees with a low genetic risk (whose mothers did not have schizophrenia) and who were raised in healthy family environments, 4.8% were likely to develop schizophrenia (Tienari et al., 2004).
The study shows that adoptees with high genetic risk were especially
likely to develop schizophrenia only if they were raised in disturbed
home environments. This research lends credibility to the notion that
both genetic vulnerability and environmental stress are necessary for
schizophrenia to develop, and that genes alone do not tell the full
tale.
Genes are sequences of DNA that code for a particular trait. Different
versions of a gene are called alleles—sometimes alleles can be
classified as dominant or recessive. A dominant allele always results in
the dominant phenotype. In order to exhibit a recessive phenotype, an
individual must be homozygous for the recessive allele. Genes affect
both physical and psychological characteristics. Ultimately, how and
when a gene is expressed, and what the outcome will be—in terms of both
physical and psychological characteristics—is a function of the
interaction between our genes and our environments.
Question
A(n) ________ is a sudden, permanent change in a sequence of
DNA.
allele
chromosome
epigenetic
mutation {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ refers to a person’s genetic makeup, while ________
refers to a person’s physical characteristics.
Phenotype; genotype
Genotype; phenotype
DNA; gene
Gene; DNA {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
________ is the field of study that focuses on genes and their
expression.
The theory of evolution by natural selection requires variability
of a given trait. Why is variability necessary and where does it
come from?
Variability is essential for natural selection to work. If all
individuals are the same on a given trait, there will be no
relative difference in their reproductive success because everyone
will be equally adapted to their environments on that trait.
Mutations are one source of variability, but sexual reproduction
is another important source of variation given that individuals
inherit half of their genetic makeup from each of their parents.
You share half of your genetic makeup with each of your parents,
but you are no doubt very different from both of them. Spend a few
minutes jotting down the similarities and differences between you
and your parents. How do you think your unique environment and
experiences have contributed to some of the differences you see?
asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate,
and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in
that range we will fall ^
states that organisms that are better suited for their
environments will survive and reproduce compared to those that are
poorly suited for their environments
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Identify the
basic parts of a neuron * Describe how neurons communicate with each
other * Explain how drugs act as agonists or antagonists for a given
neurotransmitter system
Psychologists striving to understand the human mind may study the
nervous system. Learning how the cells and organs (like the brain)
function, help us understand the biological basis behind human
psychology. The nervous system{: data-type=“term”} is composed of
two basic cell types: glial cells (also known as glia) and neurons.
Glial cells, which outnumber neurons ten to one, are traditionally
thought to play a supportive role to neurons, both physically and
metabolically. Glial cells{: data-type=“term”} provide scaffolding
on which the nervous system is built, help neurons line up closely with
each other to allow neuronal communication, provide insulation to
neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune
responses. Neurons{: data-type=“term”}, on the other hand, serve
as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of
the tasks of the nervous system. This section briefly describes the
structure and function of neurons.
:term:Neurons are the central building
blocks of the nervous system, 100 billion strong at birth. Like all
cells, neurons consist of several different parts, each serving a
specialized function ([link]). A neuron’s
outer surface is made up of a semipermeable membrane{:
data-type=“term”}. This membrane allows smaller molecules and molecules
without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger
or highly charged molecules.
{: #CNX_Psych_03_02_Neuron}
The nucleus of the neuron is located in the soma{:
data-type=“term”}, or cell body. The soma has branching extensions known
as dendrites{: data-type=“term”}. The neuron is a small
information processor, and dendrites serve as input sites where signals
are received from other neurons. These signals are transmitted
electrically across the soma and down a major extension from the soma
known as the axon{: data-type=“term”}, which ends at multiple
terminal buttons{: data-type=“term”}. The terminal buttons contain
synaptic vesicles{: data-type=“term”} that house
neurotransmitters{: data-type=“term”}, the chemical messengers of
the nervous system.
Axons range in length from a fraction of an inch to several feet. In
some axons, glial cells form a fatty substance known as the myelin
sheath{: data-type=“term”}, which coats the axon and acts as an
insulator, increasing the speed at which the signal travels. The myelin
sheath is crucial for the normal operation of the neurons within the
nervous system: the loss of the insulation it provides can be
detrimental to normal function. To understand how this works, let’s
consider an example. Multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune disorder,
involves a large-scale loss of the myelin sheath on axons throughout the
nervous system. The resulting interference in the electrical signal
prevents the quick transmittal of information by neurons and can lead to
a number of symptoms, such as dizziness, fatigue, loss of motor control,
and sexual dysfunction. While some treatments may help to modify the
course of the disease and manage certain symptoms, there is currently no
known cure for multiple sclerosis.
In healthy individuals, the neuronal signal moves rapidly down the axon
to the terminal buttons, where synaptic vesicles release
neurotransmitters into the synapse
([link]). The synapse{:
data-type=“term”} is a very small space between two neurons and is an
important site where communication between neurons occurs. Once
neurotransmitters are released into the synapse, they travel across the
small space and bind with corresponding receptors on the dendrite of an
adjacent neuron. Receptors{: data-type=“term”}, proteins on the
cell surface where neurotransmitters attach, vary in shape, with
different shapes “matching” different neurotransmitters.
How does a neurotransmitter “know” which receptor to bind to? The
neurotransmitter and the receptor have what is referred to as a
lock-and-key relationship—specific neurotransmitters fit specific
receptors similar to how a key fits a lock. The neurotransmitter binds
to any receptor that it fits.
Now that we have learned about the basic structures of the neuron and
the role that these structures play in neuronal communication, let’s
take a closer look at the signal itself—how it moves through the neuron
and then jumps to the next neuron, where the process is repeated.
We begin at the neuronal membrane. The neuron{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} exists in a fluid environment—it is surrounded by
extracellular fluid and contains intracellular fluid (i.e., cytoplasm).
The neuronal membrane keeps these two fluids separate—a critical role
because the electrical signal that passes through the neuron depends on
the intra- and extracellular fluids being electrically different. This
difference in charge across the membrane, called the membrane
potential{: data-type=“term”}, provides energy for the signal.
The electrical charge of the fluids is caused by charged molecules
(ions) dissolved in the fluid. The semipermeable nature of the neuronal
membrane somewhat restricts the movement of these charged molecules,
and, as a result, some of the charged particles tend to become more
concentrated either inside or outside the cell.
Between signals, the neuron membrane’s potential is held in a state of
readiness, called the resting potential{: data-type=“term”}. Like
a rubber band stretched out and waiting to spring into action, ions line
up on either side of the cell membrane, ready to rush across the
membrane when the neuron goes active and the membrane opens its gates
(i.e., a sodium-potassium pumppastehere
that allows movement of ions across the membrane). Ions in
high-concentration areas are ready to move to low-concentration areas,
and positive ions are ready to move to areas with a negative charge.
In the resting state, sodium (Na+) is at higher concentrations outside
the cell, so it will tend to move into the cell. Potassium (K+), on the
other hand, is more concentrated inside the cell, and will tend to move
out of the cell ([link]). In addition,
the inside of the cell is slightly negatively charged compared to the
outside. This provides an additional force on sodium, causing it to move
into the cell.
{: #CNX_Psych_03_02_NaKConc}
From this resting potential state, the neuron receives a signal and its
state changes abruptly ([link]). When a
neuron receives signals at the dendrites—due to neurotransmitters from
an adjacent neuron binding to its receptors—small pores, or gates, open
on the neuronal membrane, allowing Na+ ions, propelled by both charge
and concentration differences, to move into the cell. With this influx
of positive ions, the internal charge of the cell becomes more positive.
If that charge reaches a certain level, called the threshold of
excitation{: data-type=“term”}, the neuron becomes active and the
action potential begins.
Many additional pores open, causing a massive influx of Na+ ions and a
huge positive spike in the membrane potential, the peak action
potential. At the peak of the spike, the sodium gates close and the
potassium gates open. As positively charged potassium ions leave, the
cell quickly begins repolarization. At first, it hyperpolarizes,
becoming slightly more negative than the resting potential, and then it
levels off, returning to the resting potential.
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_02_ActionP}
This positive spike constitutes the action potential{:
data-type=“term”}: the electrical signal that typically moves from the
cell body down the axon to the axon terminals. The electrical signal
moves down the axon like a wave; at each point, some of the sodium ions
that enter the cell diffuse to the next section of the axon, raising the
charge past the threshold of excitation and triggering a new influx of
sodium ions. The action potential moves all the way down the axon to the
terminal buttons.
The action potential is an all-or-none{: data-type=“term”}
phenomenon. In simple terms, this means that an incoming signal from
another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the
threshold of excitation. There is no in-between, and there is no turning
off an action potential once it starts. Think of it like sending an
email or a text message. You can think about sending it all you want,
but the message is not sent until you hit the send button. Furthermore,
once you send the message, there is no stopping it.
Because it is all or none, the action potential{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} is recreated, or propagated, at its full strength at every
point along the axon. Much like the lit fuse of a firecracker, it does
not fade away as it travels down the axon. It is this all-or-none
property that explains the fact that your brain perceives an injury to a
distant body part like your toe as equally painful as one to your nose.
As noted earlier, when the action potential arrives at the terminal
button, the synaptic vesicles release their neurotransmitters into the
synapse. The neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to
receptors on the dendrites of the adjacent neuron, and the process
repeats itself in the new neuron (assuming the signal is sufficiently
strong to trigger an action potential). Once the signal is delivered,
excess neurotransmitters in the synapse drift away, are broken down into
inactive fragments, or are reabsorbed in a process known as
reuptake{: data-type=“term”}. Reuptake involves the
neurotransmitter being pumped back into the neuron that released it, in
order to clear the synapse ([link]).
Clearing the synapse serves both to provide a clear “on” and “off” state
between signals and to regulate the production of neurotransmitter (full
synaptic vesicles provide signals that no additional neurotransmitters
need to be produced).
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_02_Reuptake}
Neuronal communication is often referred to as an electrochemical event.
The movement of the action potential down the length of the axon is an
electrical event, and movement of the neurotransmitter across the
synaptic space represents the chemical portion of the process.
There are several different types of neurotransmitters{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} released by different neurons, and we can
speak in broad terms about the kinds of functions associated with
different neurotransmitters ([link]). Much of what
psychologists know about the functions of neurotransmitters comes from
research on the effects of drugs in psychological disorders.
Psychologists who take a biological perspective{:
data-type=“term”} and focus on the physiological causes of behavior
assert that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia
are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems.
In this perspective, psychotropic medications can help improve the
symptoms associated with these disorders. Psychotropic
medications{: data-type=“term”} are drugs that treat psychiatric
symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance.
Major Neurotransmitters and How They Affect Behaviour
Neurotransmitter
Involved in
Potential Effect on
Behavior
Acetylcholine
Muscle action,
memory
Increased arousal,
enhanced cognition
Beta-endorphin
Pain, pleasure
Decreased anxiety,
decreased tension
Dopamine
Mood, sleep,
learning
Increased pleasure,
suppressed appetite
Gamma-aminobutyric
acid (GABA)
Brain function,
sleep
Decreased anxiety,
decreased tension
Glutamate
Memory, learning
Increased learning,
enhanced memory
Norepinephrine
Heart, intestines,
alertness
Increased arousal,
suppressed appetite
Serotonin
Mood, sleep
Modulated mood,
suppressed appetite
Psychoactive drugs can act as agonists or antagonists for a given
neurotransmitter system. Agonists{: data-type=“term”} are
chemicals that mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and, thus,
strengthen its effects. An antagonist{: data-type=“term”}, on the
other hand, blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter
at the receptor. Agonist and antagonist drugs are prescribed to correct
the specific neurotransmitter imbalances underlying a person’s
condition. For example, Parkinson’s disease, a progressive nervous
system disorder, is associated with low levels of dopamine. Therefore
dopamine agonists, which mimic the effects of dopamine by binding to
dopamine receptors, are one treatment strategy.
Certain symptoms of schizophrenia are associated with overactive
dopamine neurotransmission. The antipsychotics used to treat these
symptoms are antagonists for dopamine—they block dopamine’s effects by
binding its receptors without activating them. Thus, they prevent
dopamine released by one neuron from signaling information to adjacent
neurons.
In contrast to agonists and antagonists, which both operate by binding
to receptor sites, reuptake inhibitors prevent unused neurotransmitters
from being transported back to the neuron. This leaves more
neurotransmitters in the synapse for a longer time, increasing its
effects. Depression, which has been consistently linked with reduced
serotonin levels, is commonly treated with selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs). By preventing reuptake, SSRIs strengthen the effect
of serotonin, giving it more time to interact with serotonin receptors
on dendrites. Common SSRIs on the market today include Prozac, Paxil,
and Zoloft. The drug LSD is structurally very similar to serotonin, and
it affects the same neurons and receptors as serotonin. Psychotropic
drugs are not instant solutions for people suffering from psychological
disorders. Often, an individual must take a drug for several weeks
before seeing improvement, and many psychoactive drugs have significant
negative side effects. Furthermore, individuals vary dramatically in how
they respond to the drugs. To improve chances for success, it is not
uncommon for people receiving pharmacotherapy to undergo psychological
and/or behavioral therapies as well. Some research suggests that
combining drug therapy with other forms of therapy tends to be more
effective than any one treatment alone (for one such example, see March
et al., 2007).
Glia and neurons are the two cell types that make up the nervous system.
While glia generally play supporting roles, the communication between
neurons is fundamental to all of the functions associated with the
nervous system. Neuronal communication is made possible by the neuron’s
specialized structures. The soma contains the cell nucleus, and the
dendrites extend from the soma in tree-like branches. The axon is
another major extension of the cell body; axons are often covered by a
myelin sheath, which increases the speed of transmission of neural
impulses. At the end of the axon are terminal buttons that contain
synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters.
Neuronal communication is an electrochemical event. The dendrites
contain receptors for neurotransmitters released by nearby neurons. If
the signals received from other neurons are sufficiently strong, an
action potential will travel down the length of the axon to the terminal
buttons, resulting in the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Action potentials operate on the all-or-none principle and involve the
movement of Na+ and K+ across the neuronal membrane.
Different neurotransmitters are associated with different functions.
Often, psychological disorders involve imbalances in a given
neurotransmitter system. Therefore, psychotropic drugs are prescribed in
an attempt to bring the neurotransmitters back into balance. Drugs can
act either as agonists or as antagonists for a given neurotransmitter
system.
nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support
to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and
nutrient and waste transport ^
cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without
an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or
highly charged molecules ^
level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become
active
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
difference between the central and peripheral nervous systems *
Explain the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous
systems * Differentiate between the sympathetic and parasympathetic
divisions of the autonomic nervous system
The nervous system can be divided
into two major subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS),
shown in [link].
The CNS is comprised of the brain and spinal cord; the PNS connects the
CNS to the rest of the body. In this section, we focus on the peripheral
nervous system; later, we look at the brain and spinal cord.
The peripheral nervous system is made up of thick bundles of axons,
called nerves, carrying messages back and forth between the CNS and the
muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body (i.e.,
everything outside the CNS). The PNS has two major subdivisions: the
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
The somatic nervous system is associated with
activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary. It is
involved in the relay of sensory and motor information to and from the
CNS; therefore, it consists of motor neurons and sensory neurons. Motor
neurons, carrying instructions from the CNS to the muscles, are efferent
fibers (efferent means “moving away from”). Sensory neurons, carrying
sensory information to the CNS, are afferent fibers (afferent means
“moving toward”). Each nerve is basically a two-way superhighway,
containing thousands of axons, both efferent and afferent.
The autonomic nervous system controls our
internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the
realm of voluntary control. It can be further subdivided into the
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
([link]). The sympathetic nervous system
is involved in preparing the body for
stress-related activities; the parasympathetic nervous system is associated with returning the body to routine,
day-to-day operations. The two systems have complementary functions,
operating in tandem to maintain the body’s homeostasis.
Homeostasis is a state of equilibrium, in
which biological conditions (such as body temperature) are maintained at
optimal levels.
{: #CNX_Psych_03_03_Autonomic}
The sympathetic nervous system is activated when we are faced with
stressful or high-arousal situations. The activity of this system was
adaptive for our ancestors, increasing their chances of survival.
Imagine, for example, that one of our early ancestors, out hunting small
game, suddenly disturbs a large bear with her cubs. At that moment, his
body undergoes a series of changes—a direct function of sympathetic
activation—preparing him to face the threat. His pupils dilate, his
heart rate and blood pressure increase, his bladder relaxes, his liver
releases glucose, and adrenaline surges into his bloodstream. This
constellation of physiological changes, known as the fight or flight response,
allows the body access to energy
reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a
threat or run away to safety.
Link to Learning
Reinforce what you’ve learned about the nervous system by playing
this BBC-produced interactive game
about the nervous system.
While it is clear that such a response would be critical for survival
for our ancestors, who lived in a world full of real physical threats,
many of the high-arousal situations we face in the modern world are more
psychological in nature. For example, think about how you feel when you
have to stand up and give a presentation in front of a roomful of
people, or right before taking a big test. You are in no real physical
danger in those situations, and yet you have evolved to respond to any
perceived threat with the fight or flight response. This kind of response is not nearly as adaptive
in the modern world; in fact, we suffer negative health consequences
when faced constantly with psychological threats that we can neither
fight nor flee. Recent research suggests that an increase in
susceptibility to heart disease [] (Chandola, Brunner, & Marmot, 2006) and
impaired function of the immune system (Glaser & Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005)
are among the many negative consequences of persistent and repeated
exposure to stressful situations.
Once the threat has been resolved, the parasympathetic nervous system
takes over and returns bodily functions to a relaxed state. Our hunter’s
heart rate and blood pressure return to normal, his pupils constrict, he
regains control of his bladder, and the liver begins to store glucose in
the form of glycogen for future use. These processes are associated with
activation of the parasympathetic nervous system.
Summary
The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. The
peripheral nervous system is comprised of the somatic and autonomic
nervous systems. The somatic nervous system transmits sensory and motor
signals to and from the central nervous system. The autonomic nervous
system controls the function of our organs and glands, and can be
divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Sympathetic
activation prepares us for fight or flight, while parasympathetic
activation is associated with normal functioning under relaxed
conditions.
Examine [link], illustrating the effects of sympathetic nervous system activation. How would all of these things play into the fight or flight response?
Most of these effects directly impact energy availability and
redistribution of key resources and heightened sensory capacity.
The individual experiencing these effects would be better prepared
to fight or flee.
Hopefully, you do not face real physical threats from potential
predators on a daily basis. However, you probably have your fair
share of stress. What situations are your most common sources of
stress? What can you do to try to minimize the negative
consequences of these particular stressors in your life?
activation of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous
system, allowing access to energy reserves and heightened sensory
capacity so that we might fight off a given threat or run away to
safety ^
involved in stress-related activities and functions
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the
functions of the spinal cord * Identify the hemispheres and lobes of
the brain * Describe the types of techniques available to clinicians
and researchers to image or scan the brain
The brain is a remarkably complex organ comprised of billions of
interconnected neurons and glia. It is a bilateral, or two-sided,
structure that can be separated into distinct lobes. Each lobe is
associated with certain types of functions, but, ultimately, all of the
areas of the brain interact with one another to provide the foundation
for our thoughts and behaviors. In this section, we discuss the overall
organization of the brain and the functions associated with different
brain areas, beginning with what can be seen as an extension of the
brain, the spinal cord.
is what connects the brain to the outside world. Because
of it, the brain can act. The spinal cord is like a relay station, but a
very smart one. It not only routes messages to and from the brain, but
it also has its own system of automatic processes, called reflexes.
The top of the spinal cord merges with the brain stem, where the basic
processes of life are controlled, such as breathing and digestion. In
the opposite direction, the spinal cord ends just below the
ribs—contrary to what we might expect, it does not extend all the way to
the base of the spine.
The spinal cord is functionally organized in 30 segments, corresponding
with the vertebrae. Each segment is connected to a specific part of the
body through the peripheral nervous system. Nerves branch out from the
spine at each vertebra. Sensory nerves bring messages in; motor nerves
send messages out to the muscles and organs. Messages travel to and from
the brain through every segment.
Some sensory messages are immediately acted on by the spinal cord,
without any input from the brain. Withdrawal from heat and knee jerk are
two examples. When a sensory message meets certain parameters, the
spinal cord initiates an automatic reflex. The signal passes from the
sensory nerve to a simple processing center, which initiates a motor
command. Seconds are saved, because messages don’t have to go the brain,
be processed, and get sent back. In matters of survival, the spinal
reflexes allow the body to react extraordinarily fast.
The spinal cord is protected by bony vertebrae and cushioned in
cerebrospinal fluid, but injuries still occur. When the spinal cord is
damaged in a particular segment, all lower segments are cut off from the
brain, causing paralysis. Therefore, the lower on the spine damage is,
the fewer functions an injured individual loses.
The surface of the brain, known as the cerebral cortex{:
data-type=“term”}, is very uneven, characterized by a distinctive
pattern of folds or bumps, known as gyri{: data-type=“term”}
(singular: gyrus), and grooves, known as sulci{: data-type=“term”}
(singular: sulcus), shown in [#CNX_Psych_03_04_Cortex]__. These
gyri and sulci form important landmarks that allow us to separate the
brain into functional centers. The most prominent sulcus, known as the
longitudinal fissure{: data-type=“term”}, is the deep groove that
separates the brain into two halves or hemispheres{:
data-type=“term”}: the left hemisphere and the right hemisphere.
There is evidence of some specialization of function—referred to as
lateralization{: data-type=“term”}—in each hemisphere, mainly
regarding differences in language ability. Beyond that, however, the
differences that have been found have been minor. What we do know is
that the left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the
right hemisphere controls the left half of the body.
The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known
as the corpus callosum{: data-type=“term”}, consisting of about
200 million axons. The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to
communicate with each other and allows for information being processed
on one side of the brain to be shared with the other side.
Normally, we are not aware of the different roles that our two
hemispheres play in day-to-day functions, but there are people who come
to know the capabilities and functions of their two hemispheres quite
well. In some cases of severe epilepsy, doctors elect to sever the
corpus callosum as a means of controlling the spread of seizures
([link]). While this is an effective
treatment option, it results in individuals who have split brains. After
surgery, these split-brain patients show a variety of interesting
behaviors. For instance, a split-brain patient is unable to name a
picture that is shown in the patient’s left visual field because the
information is only available in the largely nonverbal right hemisphere.
However, they are able to recreate the picture with their left hand,
which is also controlled by the right hemisphere. When the more verbal
left hemisphere sees the picture that the hand drew, the patient is able
to name it (assuming the left hemisphere can interpret what was drawn by
the left hand).
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_CorpusCall}
See also
This interactive animation
on the Nobel Prize website walks users through the hemispheres of the
brain.
Much of what we know about the functions of different areas of the brain
comes from studying changes in the behavior and ability of individuals
who have suffered damage to the brain. For example, researchers study
the behavioral changes caused by strokes to learn about the functions of
specific brain areas. A stroke, caused by an interruption of blood flow
to a region in the brain, causes a loss of brain function in the
affected region. The damage can be in a small area, and, if it is, this
gives researchers the opportunity to link any resulting behavioral
changes to a specific area. The types of deficits displayed after a
stroke will be largely dependent on where in the brain the damage
occurred.
Consider Theona, an intelligent, self-sufficient woman, who is 62 years
old. Recently, she suffered a stroke in the front portion of her right
hemisphere. As a result, she has great difficulty moving her left leg.
(As you learned earlier, the right hemisphere controls the left side of
the body; also, the brain’s main motor centers are located at the front
of the head, in the frontal lobe.) Theona has also experienced
behavioral changes. For example, while in the produce section of the
grocery store, she sometimes eats grapes, strawberries, and apples
directly from their bins before paying for them. This behavior—which
would have been very embarrassing to her before the stroke—is consistent
with damage in another region in the frontal lobe—the prefrontal cortex,
which is associated with judgment, reasoning, and impulse control.
The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are part of the
forebrain{: data-type=“term”}
([link]), which is the largest part of
the brain. The forebrain contains the cerebral cortex and a number of
other structures that lie beneath the cortex (called subcortical
structures): thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic
system (collection of structures). The cerebral cortex, which is the
outer surface of the brain, is associated with higher level processes
such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and
memory. Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each
associated with different functions.
The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and
occipital lobes ([link]). The frontal
lobe{: data-type=“term”} is located in the forward part of the
brain, extending back to a fissure known as the central sulcus. The
frontal lobe is involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and
language. It contains the motor cortex{: data-type=“term”}, which
is involved in planning and coordinating movement; the prefrontal
cortex{: data-type=“term”}, which is responsible for higher-level
cognitive functioning; and Broca’s area{: data-type=“term”}, which
is essential for language production.
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_Lobes}
People who suffer damage to Broca’s area have great difficulty producing
language of any form ([link]). For example,
Padma was an electrical engineer who was socially active and a caring,
involved mother. About twenty years ago, she was in a car accident and
suffered damage to her Broca’s area. She completely lost the ability to
speak and form any kind of meaningful language. There is nothing wrong
with her mouth or her vocal cords, but she is unable to produce words.
She can follow directions but can’t respond verbally, and she can read
but no longer write. She can do routine tasks like running to the market
to buy milk, but she could not communicate verbally if a situation
called for it.
Probably the most famous case of frontal lobe damage is that of a man by
the name of Phineas Gage. On
September 13, 1848, Gage (age 25) was working as a railroad foreman in
Vermont. He and his crew were using an iron rod to tamp explosives down
into a blasting hole to remove rock along the railway’s path.
Unfortunately, the iron rod created a spark and caused the rod to
explode out of the blasting hole, into Gage’s face, and through his
skull ([link]). Although lying in a
pool of his own blood with brain matter emerging from his head, Gage was
conscious and able to get up, walk, and speak. But in the months
following his accident, people noticed that his personality had changed.
Many of his friends described him as no longer being himself. Before the
accident, it was said that Gage was a well-mannered, soft-spoken man,
but he began to behave in odd and inappropriate ways after the accident.
Such changes in personality would be consistent with loss of impulse
control—a frontal lobe function.
Beyond the damage to the frontal lobe itself, subsequent investigations
into the rod’s path also identified probable damage to pathways between
the frontal lobe and other brain structures, including the limbic
system. With connections between the planning functions of the frontal
lobe and the emotional processes of the limbic system severed, Gage had
difficulty controlling his emotional impulses.
However, there is some evidence suggesting that the dramatic changes in
Gage’s personality were exaggerated and embellished. Gage’s case
occurred in the midst of a 19th century debate over
localization—regarding whether certain areas of the brain are associated
with particular functions. On the basis of extremely limited information
about Gage, the extent of his injury, and his life before and after the
accident, scientists tended to find support for their own views, on
whichever side of the debate they fell (Macmillan, 1999).
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_GageSkull}
The brain’s parietal lobe{: data-type=“term”} is located
immediately behind the frontal lobe, and is involved in processing
information from the body’s senses. It contains the somatosensory
cortex{: data-type=“term”}, which is essential for processing
sensory information from across the body, such as touch, temperature,
and pain. The somatosensory cortex is organized topographically, which
means that spatial relationships that exist in the body are maintained
on the surface of the somatosensory cortex
([link]). For example, the portion of
the cortex that processes sensory information from the hand is adjacent
to the portion that processes information from the wrist.
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_BrainOrg}
The temporal lobe{: data-type=“term”} is located on the side of
the head (temporal means “near the temples”), and is associated with
hearing, memory, emotion, and some aspects of language. The auditory
cortex{: data-type=“term”}, the main area responsible for processing
auditory information, is located within the temporal lobe. Wernicke’s
area{: data-type=“term”}, important for speech comprehension, is
also located here. Whereas individuals with damage to Broca’s area have
difficulty producing language, those with damage to Wernicke’s area can
produce sensible language, but they are unable to understand it
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_Broca}
The occipital lobe{: data-type=“term”} is located at the very back
of the brain, and contains the primary visual cortex, which is
responsible for interpreting incoming visual information. The occipital
cortex is organized retinotopically, which means there is a close
relationship between the position of an object in a person’s visual
field and the position of that object’s representation on the cortex.
You will learn much more about how visual information is processed in
the occipital lobe when you study sensation and perception.
Other areas of the forebrain,
located beneath the cerebral cortex, include the thalamus and the limbic
system. The thalamus{: data-type=“term”} is a sensory relay for
the brain. All of our senses, with the exception of smell, are routed
through the thalamus before being directed to other areas of the brain
for processing ([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_Thalamus}
The limbic system{: data-type=“term”} is involved in processing
both emotion and memory. Interestingly, the sense of smell projects
directly to the limbic system; therefore, not surprisingly, smell can
evoke emotional responses in ways that other sensory modalities cannot.
The limbic system is made up of a number of different structures, but
three of the most important are the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the
hypothalamus ([link]). The
hippocampus{: data-type=“term”} is an essential structure for
learning and memory. The amygdala is involved
in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our
memories. The hypothalamus regulates a number
of homeostatic processes, including the regulation of body temperature,
appetite, and blood pressure. The hypothalamus also serves as an
interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system and in the
regulation of sexual motivation and behavior.
In 1953, Henry Gustav Molaison
(H. M.) was a 27-year-old man who experienced severe seizures. In an
attempt to control his seizures, H. M. underwent brain surgery to remove
his hippocampus and amygdala. Following the surgery, H.M’s seizures
became much less severe, but he also suffered some unexpected—and
devastating—consequences of the surgery: he lost his ability to form
many types of new memories. For example, he was unable to learn new
facts, such as who was president of the United States. He was able to
learn new skills, but afterward he had no recollection of learning them.
For example, while he might learn to use a computer, he would have no
conscious memory of ever having used one. He could not remember new
faces, and he was unable to remember events, even immediately after they
occurred. Researchers were fascinated by his experience, and he is
considered one of the most studied cases in medical and psychological
history (Hardt, Einarsson, & Nader, 2010; Squire, 2009). Indeed, his
case has provided tremendous insight into the role that the hippocampus
plays in the consolidation of new learning into explicit memory.
See also
Clive Wearing, an accomplished musician, lost the ability to form new
memories when his hippocampus was damaged through illness. Check out
the first few minutes of this documentary
video for an introduction to this
man and his condition.
The midbrain{: data-type=“term”} is comprised of structures
located deep within the brain, between the forebrain and the hindbrain.
The reticular formation{: data-type=“term”} is centered in the
midbrain, but it actually extends up into the forebrain and down into
the hindbrain. The reticular formation is important in regulating the
sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity.
The substantia nigra{: data-type=“term”} (Latin for “black
substance”) and the ventral tegmental area (VTA){:
data-type=“term”} are also located in the midbrain
([link]). Both regions contain cell
bodies that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine, and both are critical
for movement. Degeneration of the substantia nigra and VTA is involved
in Parkinson’s disease. In addition, these structures are involved in
mood, reward, and addiction (Berridge & Robinson, 1998; Gardner, 2011;
George, Le Moal, & Koob, 2012).
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_Midbrain}
The hindbrain{: data-type=“term”} is located at the back of the
head and looks like an extension of the spinal cord. It contains the
medulla, pons, and cerebellum ([link]).
The medulla{: data-type=“term”} controls the automatic processes
of the autonomic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and
heart rate. The word pons literally means “bridge,” and as the name
suggests, the pons{: data-type=“term”} serves to connect the brain
and spinal cord. It also is involved in regulating brain activity during
sleep. The medulla, pons, and midbrain together are known as the
brainstem.
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_Hindbrain}
The cerebellum{: data-type=“term”} (Latin for “little brain”)
receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our
ear to control balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills. The
cerebellum is also thought to be an important area for processing some
types of memories. In particular, procedural memory, or memory involved
in learning and remembering how to perform tasks, is thought to be
associated with the cerebellum. Recall that H. M. was unable to form new
explicit memories, but he could learn new tasks. This is likely due to
the fact that H. M.’s cerebellum remained intact.
You have learned how brain injury can provide information about the
functions of different parts of the brain. Increasingly, however, we are
able to obtain that information using brain imaging{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} techniques on individuals who have not
suffered brain injury. In this section, we take a more in-depth look at
some of the techniques that are available for imaging the brain,
including techniques that rely on radiation, magnetic fields, or
electrical activity within the brain.
A computerized tomography (CT) scan{: data-type=“term”} involves
taking a number of x-rays of a particular section of a person’s body or
brain ([link]). The x-rays pass through
tissues of different densities at different rates, allowing a computer
to construct an overall image of the area of the body being scanned. A
CT scan is often used to determine whether someone has a tumor, or
significant brain atrophy.
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_CT}
Positron emission tomography (PET){: data-type=“term”} scans
create pictures of the living, active brain
([link]). An individual receiving a PET scan
drinks or is injected with a mildly radioactive substance, called a
tracer. Once in the bloodstream, the amount of tracer in any given
region of the brain can be monitored. As brain areas become more active,
more blood flows to that area. A computer monitors the movement of the
tracer and creates a rough map of active and inactive areas of the brain
during a given behavior. PET scans show little detail, are unable to
pinpoint events precisely in time, and require that the brain be exposed
to radiation; therefore, this technique has been replaced by the fMRI as
an alternative diagnostic tool. However, combined with CT, PET
technology is still being used in certain contexts. For example, CT/PET
scans allow better imaging of the activity of neurotransmitter receptors
and open new avenues in schizophrenia research. In this hybrid CT/PET
technology, CT contributes clear images of brain structures, while PET
shows the brain’s activity.
In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI){: data-type=“term”}, a person
is placed inside a machine that generates a strong magnetic field. The
magnetic field causes the hydrogen atoms in the body’s cells to move.
When the magnetic field is turned off, the hydrogen atoms emit
electromagnetic signals as they return to their original positions.
Tissues of different densities give off different signals, which a
computer interprets and displays on a monitor. Functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI){: data-type=“term”} operates on the same
principles, but it shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking
blood flow and oxygen levels. The fMRI provides more detailed images of
the brain’s structure, as well as better accuracy in time, than is
possible in PET scans ([link]). With their
high level of detail, MRI and fMRI are often used to compare the brains
of healthy individuals to the brains of individuals diagnosed with
psychological disorders. This comparison helps determine what structural
and functional differences exist between these populations.
In some situations, it is helpful to gain an understanding of the
overall activity of a person’s brain, without needing information on the
actual location of the activity. Electroencephalography (EEG){:
data-type=“term”} serves this purpose by providing a measure of a
brain’s electrical activity. An array of electrodes is placed around a
person’s head ([link]). The signals received
by the electrodes result in a printout of the electrical activity of his
or her brain, or brainwaves, showing both the frequency (number of waves
per second) and amplitude (height) of the recorded brainwaves, with an
accuracy within milliseconds. Such information is especially helpful to
researchers studying sleep patterns among individuals with sleep
disorders.
The brain consists of two hemispheres, each controlling the opposite
side of the body. Each hemisphere can be subdivided into different
lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital. In addition to the
lobes of the cerebral cortex, the forebrain includes the thalamus
(sensory relay) and limbic system (emotion and memory circuit). The
midbrain contains the reticular formation, which is important for sleep
and arousal, as well as the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area.
These structures are important for movement, reward, and addictive
processes. The hindbrain contains the structures of the brainstem
(medulla, pons, and midbrain), which control automatic functions like
breathing and blood pressure. The hindbrain also contains the
cerebellum, which helps coordinate movement and certain types of
memories.
Individuals with brain damage have been studied extensively to provide
information about the role of different areas of the brain, and recent
advances in technology allow us to glean similar information by imaging
brain structure and function. These techniques include CT, PET, MRI,
fMRI, and EEG.
The ________ is a sensory relay station where all sensory
information, except for smell, goes before being sent to other
areas of the brain for further processing.
amygdala
hippocampus
hypothalamus
thalamus
Check Answer
D
Question 2
Damage to the ________ disrupts one’s ability to comprehend
language, but it leaves one’s ability to produce words intact.
amygdala
Broca’s Area
Wernicke’s Area
occipital lobe
Check Answer
C
Question 3
A(n) ________ uses magnetic fields to create pictures of a given
tissue.
EEG
MRI
PET scan
CT scan
Check Answer
B
Question 4
Which of the following is not a structure of the forebrain?
Before the advent of modern imaging techniques, scientists and
clinicians relied on autopsies of people who suffered brain injury
with resultant change in behavior to determine how different areas
of the brain were affected. What are some of the limitations
associated with this kind of approach?
The same limitations associated with any case study would apply
here. In addition, it is possible that the damage caused changes
in other areas of the brain, which might contribute to the
behavioral deficits. Such changes would not necessarily be obvious
to someone performing an autopsy, as they may be functional in
nature, rather than structural.
Which of the techniques discussed would be viable options for you
to determine how activity in the reticular formation is related to
sleep and wakefulness? Why?
The most viable techniques are fMRI and PET because of their
ability to provide information about brain activity and structure
simultaneously.
You read about H. M.’s memory deficits following the bilateral
removal of his hippocampus and amygdala. Have you encountered a
character in a book, television program, or movie that suffered
memory deficits? How was that character similar to and different
from H. M.?
hindbrain structure that controls our balance, coordination,
movement, and motor skills, and it is thought to be important in
processing some types of memory ^
forebrain structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior
and a number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface
between the nervous system and the endocrine system ^
An illustration of the brain’s exterior surface shows the ridges and depressions, and the deep fissure that runs through the center.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Describe each hormone’s role in regulating bodily functions
The endocrine system{: data-type=“term”} consists of a series of
glands that produce chemical substances known as hormones{:
data-type=“term”} ([link]). Like
neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers that must bind to a
receptor in order to send their signal. However, unlike
neurotransmitters, which are released in close proximity to cells with
their receptors, hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and travel
throughout the body, affecting any cells that contain receptors for
them. Thus, whereas neurotransmitters’ effects are localized, the
effects of hormones are widespread. Also, hormones are slower to take
effect, and tend to be longer lasting.
Hormones are involved in regulating all sorts of bodily functions, and
they are ultimately controlled through interactions between the
hypothalamus (in the central nervous system) and the pituitary gland (in
the endocrine system). Imbalances in hormones are related to a number of
disorders. This section explores some of the major glands that make up
the endocrine system and the hormones secreted by these glands.
The pituitary gland{: data-type=“term”} descends from the
hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and acts in close association
with it. The pituitary is often referred to as the “master gland”
because its messenger hormones control all the other glands in the
endocrine system, although it mostly carries out instructions from the
hypothalamus. In addition to messenger hormones, the pituitary also
secretes growth hormone, endorphins for pain relief, and a number of key
hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body.
Located in the neck, the thyroid gland{: data-type=“term”}
releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite. In
hyperthyroidism, or Grave’s disease, the thyroid secretes too much of
the hormone thyroxine, causing agitation, bulging eyes, and weight loss.
In hypothyroidism, reduced hormone levels cause sufferers to experience
tiredness, and they often complain of feeling cold. Fortunately, thyroid
disorders are often treatable with medications that help reestablish a
balance in the hormones secreted by the thyroid.
The adrenal glands{: data-type=“term”} sit atop our kidneys and
secrete hormones involved in the stress response, such as epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). The pancreas{:
data-type=“term”} is an internal organ that secretes hormones that
regulate blood sugar levels: insulin and glucagon. These pancreatic
hormones are essential for maintaining stable levels of blood sugar
throughout the day by lowering blood glucose levels (insulin) or raising
them (glucagon). People who suffer from diabetes{:
data-type=“term”} do not produce enough insulin; therefore, they must
take medications that stimulate or replace insulin production, and they
must closely control the amount of sugars and carbohydrates they
consume.
The gonads{: data-type=“term”} secrete sexual hormones, which are
important in reproduction, and mediate both sexual motivation and
behavior. The female gonads are the ovaries; the male gonads are the
testes. Ovaries secrete estrogens and progesterone, and the testes
secrete androgens, such as testosterone.
Tip
Athletes and Anabolic Steroids
Although it is against Federal laws and many professional athletic
associations (The National Football League, for example) have banned
their use, anabolic steroid drugs continue to be used by amateur and
professional athletes. The drugs are believed to enhance athletic
performance. Anabolic steroid drugs mimic the effects of the body’s
own steroid hormones, like testosterone and its derivatives. These
drugs have the potential to provide a competitive edge by increasing
muscle mass, strength, and endurance, although not all users may
experience these results. Moreover, use of performance-enhancing
drugs (PEDs) does not come without risks. Anabolic steroid use has
been linked with a wide variety of potentially negative outcomes,
ranging in severity from largely cosmetic (acne) to life threatening
(heart attack). Furthermore, use of these substances can result in
profound changes in mood and can increase aggressive behavior
(National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2001).
Baseball player Alex Rodriguez (A-Rod) has been at the center of a
media storm regarding his use of illegal PEDs. Rodriguez’s
performance on the field was unparalleled while using the drugs; his
success played a large role in negotiating a contract that made him
the highest paid player in professional baseball. Although Rodriguez
maintains that he has not used PEDs for the several years, he
received a substantial suspension in 2013 that, if upheld, will cost
him more than 20 million dollars in earnings (Gaines, 2013). What are
your thoughts on athletes and doping? Why or why not should the use
of PEDs be banned? What advice would you give an athlete who was
considering using PEDs?
The glands of the endocrine system secrete hormones to regulate normal
body functions. The hypothalamus serves as the interface between the
nervous system and the endocrine system, and it controls the secretions
of the pituitary. The pituitary serves as the master gland, controlling
the secretions of all other glands. The thyroid secretes thyroxine,
which is important for basic metabolic processes and growth; the adrenal
glands secrete hormones involved in the stress response; the pancreas
secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels; and the ovaries and
testes produce sex hormones that regulate sexual motivation and
behavior.
Question
The two major hormones secreted from the pancreas are:
estrogen and progesterone
norepinephrine and epinephrine
thyroxine and oxytocin
glucagon and insulin {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The ________ secretes messenger hormones that direct the
function of the rest of the endocrine glands.
ovary
thyroid
pituitary
pancreas {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
The ________ gland secretes epinephrine.
adrenal
thyroid
pituitary
master {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
The ________ secretes hormones that regulate the body’s fluid
levels.
Hormone secretion is often regulated through a negative feedback
mechanism, which means that once a hormone is secreted it will
cause the hypothalamus and pituitary to shut down the production
of signals necessary to secrete the hormone in the first place.
Most oral contraceptives are made of small doses of estrogen
and/or progesterone. Why would this be an effective means of
contraception?
The introduction of relatively low, yet constant, levels of
gonadal hormones places the hypothalamus and pituitary under
inhibition via negative feedback mechanisms. This prevents the
alterations in both estrogen and progesterone concentrations that
are necessary for successful ovulation and implantation.
Chemical messengers are used in both the nervous system and the
endocrine system. What properties do these two systems share? What
properties are different? Which one would be faster? Which one
would result in long-lasting changes?
Both systems involve chemical messengers that must interact with
receptors in order to have an effect. The relative proximity of
the release site and target tissue varies dramatically between the
two systems. In neurotransmission, reuptake and enzymatic
breakdown immediately clear the synapse. Metabolism of hormones
must occur in the liver. Therefore, while neurotransmission is
much more rapid in signaling information, hormonal signaling can
persist for quite some time as the concentrations of the hormone
in the bloodstream vary gradually over time.
Given the negative health consequences associated with the use of
anabolic steroids, what kinds of considerations might be involved
in a person’s decision to use them?
secretes a number of key hormones, which regulate fluid levels in
the body, and a number of messenger hormones, which direct the
activity of other glands in the endocrine system ^
secretes hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite
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Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
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emphasis on sleep. The different stages of sleep will be identified, and
sleep disorders will be described. The chapter will close with
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Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Explain how circadian rhythms are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, and how circadian cycles can be disrupted
Discuss the concept of sleep debt
Consciousness describes our awareness of
internal and external stimuli. Awareness of internal stimuli includes
feeling pain, hunger, thirst, sleepiness, and being aware of our
thoughts and emotions. Awareness of external stimuli includes seeing the
light from the sun, feeling the warmth of a room, and hearing the voice
of a friend.
We experience different states of consciousness and different levels of
awareness on a regular basis. We might even describe consciousness as a
continuum that ranges from full awareness to deep sleep.
Sleep is a state marked by relatively low levels of physical
activity and reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of
rest that occur during wakefulness. Wakefulness is characterized by
high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior.
In between these extremes are states of
consciousness related to daydreaming, intoxication as a result of
alcohol or other drug use, meditative states, hypnotic states, and
altered states of consciousness following sleep deprivation. We might
also experience unconscious states of being via drug-induced anesthesia
for medical purposes. Often, we are not completely aware of our
surroundings, even when we are fully awake. For instance, have you ever
daydreamed while driving home from work or school without really
thinking about the drive itself? You were capable of engaging in the all
of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though
you were not aware of doing so. Many of these processes, like much of
psychological behavior, are rooted in our biology.
Coma, Stupor, and Clouding of Consciousness
Coma, stupor, and clouding of consciousness are three clinically
relevant, abnormality of consciousness.
Clouding of consciousness, the hallmark of delirium, refers to a spectrum of
reduced consciousness ranging from subtle impairment to complete stupor. Stupor
occurs when the affected individual appears unconscious, but can still respond
to painful stimuli. Coma occurs when there is a total loss of consciousness. A person
in a state of coma does not respond to environmental stimuli.
Biological rhythms are internal rhythms of
biological activity. A woman’s menstrual cycle is an example of a
biological rhythm—a recurring, cyclical pattern of bodily changes. One
complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 days—a lunar month—but many
biological cycles are much shorter. For example, body temperature
fluctuates cyclically over a 24-hour period
([link]). Alertness is associated with
higher body temperatures, and sleepiness with lower body temperatures.
A line graph is titled “Circadian Change in Body Temperature (Source:
Waterhouse et al., 2012).”
The y-axis, is labeled “temperature (degrees
Fahrenheit),” ranges from 97.2 to 99.3. The x-axis, which is labeled
“time,” begins at 12:00 A.M. and ends at 4:00 A.M. the following day.
The subjects slept from 12:00 A.M. until 8:00 A.M. during which time
their average body temperatures dropped from around 98.8 degrees at
midnight to 97.6 degrees at 4:00 A.M. and then gradually rose back to
nearly the same starting temperature by 8:00 A.M. The average body
temperature fluctuated slightly throughout the day with an upward tilt,
until the next sleep cycle where the temperature again dropped.
This pattern of temperature fluctuation, which repeats every day, is one
example of a circadian rhythm. A circadian rhythm
is a biological rhythm that takes place over a period
of about 24 hours. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our
environment’s natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious
example of a circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in
heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature. Some
circadian rhythms play a role in changes in our state of consciousness.
If we have biological rhythms, then is there some sort of biological clock?
In the brain, the hypothalamus, which lies superior to the pituitary gland,
is a main center of homeostasis. Homeostasis is the tendency to
maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system.
The brain’s clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus
known as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN).
The axons of light-sensitive neurons in the retina provide information
to the SCN based on the amount of light present, allowing this internal
clock to be synchronized with the outside world (Klein, Moore, &
Reppert, 1991; Welsh, Takahashi, & Kay, 2010)
([link]).
An illustration showing the location of the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the brain.
In this graphic, the outline of a person’s head facing left is situated
to the right of a picture of the sun, which is labeled ”light” with an arrow
pointing to a location in the brain where light input is
processed. Inside the head is an illustration of a brain with the
following parts’ locations identified: Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN),
Hypothalamus, Pituitary gland, Pineal gland, and Output rhythms:
Physiology and Behavior.
Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with
the outside world. For example, most people sleep during the night and
are awake during the day. One important regulator of sleep-wake cycles
is the hormone melatonin. The pineal gland,
an endocrine structure located inside the
brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the
regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during
sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). Melatonin release
is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by light.
There are individual differences with regards to our sleep-wake cycle.
For instance, some people would say they are morning people, while
others would consider themselves to be night owls. These individual
differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a person’s
chronotype, and research demonstrates that morning larks and night owls
differ in sleep regulation. [1]Sleep regulation refers to the brain’s control of switching between sleep
and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world.
See also
Watch this brief video
describing circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep.
Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in
which a person’s circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external
environment. One way that this happens involves traveling across
multiple time zones. When we do this, we often experience jet lag.
Jet lag is a collection of symptoms that results
from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our
environment. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability,
and insomnia (i.e., a consistent difficulty in
falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week for over a months
month’s time) (Roth, 2007).
Individuals who do rotating shift work are also likely to experience
disruptions in circadian cycles. Rotating shift work refers
to a work schedule that changes from early to
late on a daily or weekly basis. For example, a person may work from
7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. on Monday, 3:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday,
and 11:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday. In such instances, the
individual’s schedule changes so frequently that it becomes difficult
for a normal circadian rhythm to be maintained. This often results in
sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of depression and anxiety.
These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health
care professions and service industries, and they are associated with
persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone
more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser,
1995).
Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences
of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly
illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched
the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West,
Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). Several of the nurses interviewed commented
that their work schedules affected their relationships with their
family. One of the nurses said,
If you’ve had a partner who does work regular job 9 to 5 office hours
… the ability to spend time, good time with them when you’re not
feeling absolutely exhausted … that would be one of the problems
that I’ve encountered. (West et al., 2009, p. 114)
While disruptions in circadian rhythms can have negative consequences,
there are things we can do to help us realign our biological clocks with
the external environment. Some of these approaches, such as using a
bright light as shown in [link], have
been shown to alleviate some of the problems experienced by individuals
suffering from jet lag or from the consequences of rotating shift work.
Because the biological clock is driven by light, exposure to bright
light during working shifts and dark exposure when not working can help
combat insomnia and symptoms of anxiety and depression (Huang, Tsai,
Chen, & Hsu, 2013).
When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the
demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. A person with
a sleep debt does not get sufficient sleep on
a chronic basis. The consequences of sleep debt include decreased levels
of alertness and mental efficiency. Interestingly, since the advent of
electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. While
we certainly welcome the convenience of having the darkness lit up, we
also suffer the consequences of reduced amounts of sleep because we are
more active during the nighttime hours than our ancestors were. As a
result, many of us sleep less than 7–8 hours a night and accrue a sleep
debt. While there is tremendous variation in any given individual’s
sleep needs, the National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) cites research to
estimate that newborns require the most sleep (between 12 and 18 hours a
night) and that this amount declines to just 7–9 hours by the time we
are adults.
If you lie down to take a nap and fall asleep very easily, chances are
you may have sleep debt. Given that college students are notorious for
suffering from significant sleep debt (Hicks, Fernandez, & Pelligrini,
2001; Hicks, Johnson, & Pelligrini, 1992; Miller, Shattuck, & Matsangas,
2010), chances are you and your classmates deal with sleep debt-related
issues on a regular basis. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation
updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual
differences. [link] shows the new recommendations,
which describe sleep durations that are “recommended”, “may be
appropriate”, and “not recommended”.
Sleep Needs at Different Ages
Age
Recommended
May be appropriate
Not recommended
0–3 months
14–17 hours
11–13 hours
18–19 hours
Less than 11 hours
More than 19 hours
4–11 months
12–15 hours
10–11 hours
16–18 hours
Less than 10 hours
More than 18 hours
1–2 years
11–14 hours
9–10 hours
15–16 hours
Less than 9 hours
More than 16 hours
3–5 years
10–13 hours
8–9 hours
14 hours
Less than 8 hours
More than 14 hours
6–13 years
9–11 hours
7–8 hours
12 hours
Less than 7 hours
More than 12 hours
14–17 years
8–10 hours
7 hours
11 hours
Less than 7 hours
More than 11 hours
18–25 years
7–9 hours
6 hours
10–11 hours
Less than 6 hours
More than 11 hours
26–64 years
7–9 hours
6 hours
10 hours
Less than 6 hours
More than 10 hours
≥65 years
7–8 hours
5–6 hours
9 hours
Less than 5 hours
More than 9 hours
Sleep debt and sleep deprivation have significant negative psychological
and physiological consequences [link]. As
mentioned earlier, lack of sleep can result in decreased mental
alertness and cognitive function. In addition, sleep deprivation often
results in depression-like symptoms. These effects can occur as a
function of accumulated sleep debt or in response to more acute periods
of sleep deprivation. It may surprise you to know that sleep deprivation
is associated with obesity, increased blood pressure, increased levels
of stress hormones, and reduced immune functioning (Banks & Dinges,
2007). A sleep deprived individual generally will fall asleep more
quickly than if she were not sleep deprived. Some sleep-deprived
individuals have difficulty staying awake when they stop moving (example
sitting and watching television or driving a car). That is why
individuals suffering from sleep deprivation can also put themselves and
others at risk when they put themselves behind the wheel of a car or
work with dangerous machinery. Some research suggests that sleep
deprivation affects cognitive and motor function as much as, if not more
than, alcohol intoxication (Williamson & Feyer, 2000).
An illustration of the top half of a human body identifies the
locations in the body that correspond with various adverse affects of
sleep deprivation.
The brain is labeled with Irritability,” “Cognitive
impairment,” “Memory lapses or loss,” “Impaired moral judgement,”
“Severe yawning,” “Hallucinations,” and “Symptoms similar to ADHD.” The
heart is labeled with Increased heart rate variability and Risk of heart
disease. The muscles are labeled with Increased reaction time, Decreased
accuracy, Tremors, and Aches. There is an organ near the stomach labeled
Risk of diabetes Type 2. Other risks include Growth suppression, Risk of
obesity, Decreased temperature, and Impaired immune system.|{:
#Figure_04_01_Sleepless}
See also
To assess your own sleeping habits, read this
article about sleep needs.
The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. When we are very
young, we spend up to 16 hours a day sleeping. As we grow older, we
sleep less. In fact, a meta-analysis, which is
a study that combines the results of many related studies, conducted
within the last decade indicates that by the time we are 65 years old,
we average fewer than 7 hours of sleep per
day [2].
As the amount of time we sleep varies
over our lifespan, presumably the sleep debt would adjust accordingly.
States of consciousness vary over the course of the day and throughout
our lives. Important factors in these changes are the biological
rhythms, and, more specifically, the circadian rhythms generated by the
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). Typically, our biological clocks are
aligned with our external environment, and light tends to be an
important cue in setting this clock. When people travel across multiple
time zones or work rotating shifts, they can experience disruptions of
their circadian cycles that can lead to insomnia, sleepiness, and
decreased alertness. Bright light therapy has shown to be promising in
dealing with circadian disruptions. If people go extended periods of
time without sleep, they will accrue a sleep debt and potentially
experience a number of adverse psychological and physiological
consequences.
Question
The body’s biological clock is located in the ________.
hippocampus
thalamus
hypothalamus
pituitary gland {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
________ occurs when there is a chronic deficiency in sleep.
jet lag
rotating shift work
circadian rhythm
sleep debt {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ cycles occur roughly once every 24 hours.
biological
circadian
rotating
conscious {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
________ is one way in which people can help reset their
biological clocks.
Healthcare professionals often work rotating shifts. Why is this
problematic? What can be done to deal with potential problems?
Given that rotating shift work can lead to exhaustion and
decreased mental efficiency, individuals working under these
conditions are more likely to make mistakes on the job. The
implications for this in the health care professions are obvious.
Those in health care professions could be educated about the
benefits of light-dark exposure to help alleviate such problems.
Generally, humans are considered diurnal which means we are awake
during the day and asleep during the night. Many rodents, on the
other hand, are nocturnal. Why do you think different animals have
such different sleep-wake cycles?
Different species have different evolutionary histories, and they
have adapted to their environments in different ways. There are a
number of different possible explanations as to why a given
species is diurnal or nocturnal. Perhaps humans would be most
vulnerable to threats during the evening hours when light levels
are low. Therefore, it might make sense to be in shelter during
this time. Rodents, on the other hand, are faced with a number of
predatory threats, so perhaps being active at night minimizes the
risk from predators such as birds that use their visual senses to
locate prey.
We experience shifts in our circadian clocks in the fall and
spring of each year with time changes associated with daylight
saving time. Is springing ahead or falling back easier for you to
adjust to, and why do you think that is?
What do you do to adjust to the differences in your daily schedule
throughout the week? Are you running a sleep debt when daylight
saving time begins or ends?
collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to
another that results from the mismatch between our internal
circadian cycles and our environment ^
state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and
reduced sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest
that occur during wakefulness ^
characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and
behavior
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe areas of
the brain involved in sleep * Understand hormone secretions
associated with sleep * Describe several theories aimed at
explaining the function of sleep
We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. Given the
average life expectancy for U.S. citizens falls between 73 and 79 years
old (Singh & Siahpush, 2006), we can expect to spend approximately 25
years of our lives sleeping. Some animals never sleep (e.g., several
fish and amphibian species); other animals can go extended periods of
time without sleep and without apparent negative consequences (e.g.,
dolphins); yet some animals (e.g., rats) die after two weeks of sleep
deprivation (Siegel, 2008). Why do we devote so much time to sleeping?
Is it absolutely essential that we sleep? This section will consider
these questions and explore various explanations for why we sleep.
You have read that sleep is distinguished by low levels of physical
activity and reduced sensory awareness. As discussed by Siegel (2008), a
definition of sleep must also include mention of the interplay of the
circadian and homeostatic mechanisms that regulate sleep. Homeostatic
regulation of sleep is evidenced by sleep rebound following sleep
deprivation. Sleep rebound{: data-type=“term”} refers to the fact
that a sleep-deprived individual will tend to take a shorter time to
fall asleep during subsequent opportunities for sleep. Sleep is
characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be
visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of
sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well
([link]).
{: #Figure_04_02_SleepEEG}
Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas acting
in conjunction with one another. Some of these areas include the
thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. As already mentioned, the
hypothalamus contains the SCN—the biological clock of the body—in
addition to other nuclei that, in conjunction with the thalamus,
regulate slow-wave sleep. The pons is important for regulating rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep (National Institutes of Health, n.d.).
Sleep is also associated with the secretion and regulation of a number
of hormones from several endocrine glands including: melatonin, follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and growth hormone
(National Institutes of Health, n.d.). You have read that the pineal
gland releases melatonin during sleep
([link]). Melatonin is thought to be
involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and the immune
system (Hardeland et al., 2006). During sleep, the pituitary gland
secretes both FSH and LH which are important in regulating the
reproductive system (Christensen et al., 2012; Sofikitis et al., 2008).
The pituitary gland also secretes growth hormone, during sleep, which
plays a role in physical growth and maturation as well as other
metabolic processes (Bartke, Sun, & Longo, 2013).
Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of
adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation,
one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is
that we sleep. Unfortunately, this is not the case; however, several
hypotheses have been proposed to explain the function of sleep.
One popular hypothesis of sleep incorporates the perspective of
evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary psychology{:
data-type=“term”} is a discipline that studies how universal patterns of
behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result of
natural selectionpastehere. Variations and
adaptations in cognition and behavior make individuals more or less
successful in reproducing and passing their genes to their offspring.
One hypothesis from this perspective might argue that sleep is essential
to restore resources that are expended during the day. Just as bears
hibernate in the winter when resources are scarce, perhaps people sleep
at night to reduce their energy expenditures. While this is an intuitive
explanation of sleep, there is little research that supports this
explanation. In fact, it has been suggested that there is no reason to
think that energetic demands could not be addressed with periods of rest
and inactivity (Frank, 2006; Rial et al., 2007), and some research has
actually found a negative correlation between energetic demands and the
amount of time spent sleeping (Capellini, Barton, McNamara, Preston, &
Nunn, 2008).
Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns
evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in
darkness. Thus we sleep in safe areas to reduce the chance of harm.
Again, this is an intuitive and appealing explanation for why we sleep.
Perhaps our ancestors spent extended periods of time asleep to reduce
attention to themselves from potential predators. Comparative research
indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory
risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. Some research suggests
that species that face higher predatory risks sleep fewer hours than
other species (Capellini et al., 2008), while other researchers suggest
there is no relationship between the amount of time a given species
spends in deep sleep and its predation risk (Lesku, Roth, Amlaner, &
Lima, 2006).
It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive
function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep
in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. While we have
discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it
should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated
with adequate amounts of sleep. A few such benefits listed by the
National Sleep Foundation (n.d.) include maintaining healthy weight,
lowering stress levels, improving mood, and increasing motor
coordination, as well as a number of benefits related to cognition and
memory formation.
Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleep’s importance for
cognitive function and memory formation (Rattenborg, Lesku,
Martinez-Gonzalez, & Lima, 2007). Indeed, we know sleep deprivation
results in disruptions in cognition and memory deficits (Brown, 2012),
leading to impairments in our abilities to maintain attention, make
decisions, and recall long-term memories. Moreover, these impairments
become more severe as the amount of sleep deprivation increases (Alhola
& Polo-Kantola, 2007). Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new
task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi,
Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory
formation (Stickgold, 2005). Understanding the impact of sleep on
cognitive function should help you understand that cramming all night
for a test may be not effective and can even prove counterproductive.
See also
Watch this brief video
describing sleep deprivation in college students.
Here’s another brief video
describing sleep tips for college students.
Sleep has also been associated with other cognitive benefits. Research
indicates that included among these possible benefits are increased
capacities for creative thinking (Cai, Mednick, Harrison, Kanady, &
Mednick, 2009; Wagner, Gais, Haider, Verleger, & Born, 2004), language
learning (Fenn, Nusbaum, & Margoliash, 2003; Gómez, Bootzin, & Nadel,
2006), and inferential judgments (Ellenbogen, Hu, Payne, Titone, &
Walker, 2007). It is possible that even the processing of emotional
information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009).
See also
Watch this brief video
describing the relationship between sleep and memory.
We devote a very large portion of time to sleep, and our brains have
complex systems that control various aspects of sleep. Several hormones
important for physical growth and maturation are secreted during sleep.
While the reason we sleep remains something of a mystery, there is some
evidence to suggest that sleep is very important to learning and memory.
Question
Growth hormone is secreted by the ________ while we sleep.
pineal gland
thyroid
pituitary gland
pancreas {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
The ________ plays a role in controlling slow-wave sleep.
hypothalamus
thalamus
pons
both a and b {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ is a hormone secreted by the pineal gland that plays a
role in regulating biological rhythms and immune function.
growth hormone
melatonin
LH
FSH {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
________ appears to be especially important for enhanced
performance on recently learned tasks.
If theories that assert sleep is necessary for restoration and
recovery from daily energetic demands are correct, what do you
predict about the relationship that would exist between
individuals’ total sleep duration and their level of activity?
Those individuals (or species) that expend the greatest amounts of
energy would require the longest periods of sleep.
How could researchers determine if given areas of the brain are
involved in the regulation of sleep?
Researchers could use lesion or brain stimulation techniques to
determine how deactivation or activation of a given brain region
affects behavior. Furthermore, researchers could use any number of
brain imaging techniques like fMRI or CT scans to come to these
conclusions.
Differentiate the evolutionary theories of sleep and make a case
for the one with the most compelling evidence.
One evolutionary theory of sleep holds that sleep is essential for
restoration of resources that are expended during the demands of
day-to-day life. A second theory proposes that our sleep patterns
evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase
in darkness. The first theory has little or no empirical support,
and the second theory is supported by some, though not all,
research.
Have you (or someone you know) ever experienced significant
periods of sleep deprivation because of simple insomnia, high
levels of stress, or as a side effect from a medication? What were
the consequences of missing out on sleep?
sleep-deprived individuals will experience shorter sleep latencies
during subsequent opportunities for sleep
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Differentiate
between REM and non-REM sleep * Describe the differences between the
four stages of non-REM sleep * Understand the role that REM and
non-REM sleep play in learning and memory
Sleep is not a uniform state of being. Instead, sleep is composed of
several different stages that can be differentiated from one another by
the patterns of brain wave activity that occur during each stage. These
changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are
distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of
brain waves ([link]). Sleep can be
divided into two different general phases: REM sleep and non-REM (NREM)
sleep. Rapid eye movement (REM){: data-type=“term”} sleep is
characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids.
Brain waves during REM sleep appear very similar to brain waves during
wakefulness. In contrast, non-REM (NREM){: data-type=“term”} sleep
is subdivided into four stages distinguished from each other and from
wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves. The first four
stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fifth and final stage of sleep
is REM sleep. In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of
sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity.
The first stage of NREM sleep is known as stage 1 sleep. Stage 1
sleep{: data-type=“term”} is a transitional phase that occurs
between wakefulness and sleep, the period during which we drift off to
sleep. During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of
respiration and heartbeat. In addition, stage 1 sleep involves a marked
decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature.
In terms of brain wave activity, stage 1 sleep is associated with both
alpha and theta waves. The early portion of stage 1 sleep produces
alpha waves{: data-type=“term”}, which are relatively low
frequency (8–13Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity
(waves) that become synchronized ([link]).
This pattern of brain wave activity resembles that of someone who is
very relaxed, yet awake. As an individual continues through stage 1
sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. Theta waves{:
data-type=“term”} are even lower frequency (4–7 Hz), higher amplitude
brain waves than alpha waves. It is relatively easy to wake someone from
stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been
asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep.
{:
#Figure_04_03_Stages}
As we move into stage 2 sleep{: data-type=“term”}, the body goes
into a state of deep relaxation. Theta waves still dominate the activity
of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known
as sleep spindles ([link]). A sleep
spindle{: data-type=“term”} is a rapid burst of higher frequency
brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel &
Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). In addition, the appearance
of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2 sleep. A
K-complex{: data-type=“term”} is a very high amplitude pattern of
brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental
stimuli. Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of
arousal in response to what is going on in our environments (Halász,
1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998).
{:
#Figure_04_03_Stage2}
Stage 3{: data-type=“term”} and stage 4{: data-type=“term”}
of sleep are often referred to as deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because
these stages are characterized by low frequency (up to 4 Hz), high
amplitude delta waves{: data-type=“term”}
([link]). During this time, an
individual’s heart rate and respiration slow dramatically. It is much
more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 and stage 4
than during earlier stages. Interestingly, individuals who have
increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated
with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 and
stage 4 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking,
regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, &
Lichstein, 2008).
As mentioned earlier, REM sleep is marked by rapid movements of the
eyes. The brain waves associated with this stage of sleep are very
similar to those observed when a person is awake, as shown in
[link], and this is the period of sleep in which
dreaming occurs. It is also associated with paralysis of muscle systems
in the body with the exception of those that make circulation and
respiration possible. Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs
during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to
as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity
and lack of muscle tone. Like NREM sleep, REM has been implicated in
various aspects of learning and memory (Wagner, Gais, & Born, 2001),
although there is disagreement within the scientific community about how
important both NREM and REM sleep are for normal learning and memory
(Siegel, 2001).
{: #Figure_04_03_REM}
If people are deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep without
disturbance, they will spend more time in REM sleep in what would appear
to be an effort to recoup the lost time in REM. This is known as the REM
rebound, and it suggests that REM sleep is also homeostatically
regulated. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes
related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in
emotional processing and regulation. In such instances, REM rebound may
actually represent an adaptive response to stress in nondepressed
individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events
that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012).
While sleep deprivation in general is associated with a number of
negative consequences (Brown, 2012), the consequences of REM deprivation
appear to be less profound (as discussed in Siegel, 2001). In fact, some
have suggested that REM deprivation can actually be beneficial in some
circumstances. For instance, REM sleep deprivation has been demonstrated
to improve symptoms of people suffering from major depression, and many
effective antidepressant medications suppress REM sleep (Riemann,
Berger, & Volderholzer, 2001; Vogel, 1975).
It should be pointed out that some reviews of the literature challenge
this finding, suggesting that sleep deprivation that is not limited to
REM sleep is just as effective or more effective at alleviating
depressive symptoms among some patients suffering from depression. In
either case, why sleep deprivation improves the mood of some patients is
not entirely understood (Giedke & Schwärzler, 2002). Recently, however,
some have suggested that sleep deprivation might change emotional
processing so that various stimuli are more likely to be perceived as
positive in nature (Gujar, Yoo, Hu, & Walker, 2011). The hypnogram below
([link]) shows a person’s passage through
the stages of sleep.
{:
#Figure_04_03_Hypnogram}
See also
View this video
that describes the various stages of sleep.
The meaning of dreams varies across different cultures and periods of
time. By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist Sigmund
Freudpastehere had become convinced that
dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. By
analyzing dreams, Freud thought people could increase self-awareness and
gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in
their lives. Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and
the latent content of dreams. Manifest content{: data-type=“term”}
is the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. Latent content{:
data-type=“term”}, on the other hand, refers to the hidden meaning of a
dream. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake,
Freud might have argued that this represents the woman’s fear of sexual
intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a man’s penis.
Freud was not the only theorist to focus on the content of dreams. The
20th century Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that dreams allowed
us to tap into the collective unconscious. The collective
unconscious{: data-type=“term”}, as described by Jung{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}, is a theoretical repository of
information he believed to be shared by everyone. According to Jung,
certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes with meanings
that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location.
The sleep and dreaming researcher Rosalind Cartwright, however, believes
that dreams simply reflect life events that are important to the
dreamer. Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwright’s ideas about dreaming have
found empirical support. For example, she and her colleagues published a
study in which women going through divorce were asked several times over
a five month period to report the degree to which their former spouses
were on their minds. These same women were awakened during REM sleep in
order to provide a detailed account of their dream content. There was a
significant positive correlation between the degree to which women
thought about their former spouses during waking hours and the number of
times their former spouses appeared as characters in their dreams
(Cartwright, Agargun, Kirkby, & Friedman, 2006). Recent research
(Horikawa, Tamaki, Miyawaki, & Kamitani, 2013) has uncovered new
techniques by which researchers may effectively detect and classify the
visual images that occur during dreaming by using fMRI for neural
measurement of brain activity patterns, opening the way for additional
research in this area.
Recently, neuroscientists have also become interested in understanding
why we dream. For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may
represent a state of protoconsciousness. In other words, dreaming
involves constructing a virtual reality in our heads that we might use
to help us during wakefulness. Among a variety of neurobiological
evidence, John Hobson cites research on lucid dreams as an opportunity
to better understand dreaming in general. Lucid dreams{:
data-type=“term”} are dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are
maintained during a dream state. In a lucid dream, a person becomes
aware of the fact that they are dreaming, and as such, they can control
the dream’s content (LaBerge, 1990).
The different stages of sleep are characterized by the patterns of brain
waves associated with each stage. As a person transitions from being
awake to falling asleep, alpha waves are replaced by theta waves. Sleep
spindles and K-complexes emerge in stage 2 sleep. Stage 3 and stage 4
are described as slow-wave sleep that is marked by a predominance of
delta waves. REM sleep involves rapid movements of the eyes, paralysis
of voluntary muscles, and dreaming. Both NREM and REM sleep appear to
play important roles in learning and memory. Dreams may represent life
events that are important to the dreamer. Alternatively, dreaming may
represent a state of protoconsciousness, or a virtual reality, in the
mind that helps a person during consciousness.
Question
________ is(are) described as slow-wave sleep.
stage 1
stage 2
stage 3 and stage 4
REM sleep {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Sleep spindles and K-complexes are most often associated with
________ sleep.
stage 1
stage 2
stage 3 and stage 4
REM {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Symptoms of ________ may be improved by REM deprivation.
schizophrenia
Parkinson’s disease
depression
generalized anxiety disorder {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
The ________ content of a dream refers to the true meaning of
the dream.
Freud believed that dreams provide important insight into the
unconscious mind. He maintained that a dream’s manifest content
could provide clues into an individual’s unconscious. What
potential criticisms exist for this particular perspective?
The subjective nature of dream analysis is one criticism.
Psychoanalysts are charged with helping their clients interpret
the true meaning of a dream. There is no way to refute or confirm
whether or not these interpretations are accurate. The notion that
“sometimes a cigar is just a cigar” (sometimes attributed to Freud
but not definitively shown to be his) makes it clear that there is
no systematic, objective system in place for dream analysis.
Some people claim that sleepwalking and talking in your sleep
involve individuals acting out their dreams. Why is this
particular explanation unlikely?
Dreaming occurs during REM sleep. One of the hallmarks of this
particular stage of sleep is the paralysis of the voluntary
musculature which would make acting out dreams improbable.
Researchers believe that one important function of sleep is to
facilitate learning and memory. How does knowing this help you in
your college studies? What changes could you make to your study
and sleep habits to maximize your mastery of the material covered
in class?
type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of
stage 1 and stage 2 sleep
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Describe the symptoms and treatments of insomnia, especially sleep hygiene.
Recognize the symptoms of several parasomnias
Describe the symptoms and treatments for sleep apnea
Recognize risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and steps to prevent it.
Describe the symptoms and treatments for narcolepsy
Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in
their lives. Depending on the population and sleep disorder
studied, 30% to 50% population have a sleep disorder at some point in life. [1][2][3][4][5]
This section will describe several sleep disorders as well
as some of their treatment options.
Insomnia, a consistent difficulty falling or staying asleep, is the
most common of the sleep problems; most often, it is reported as a symptom
by patients with other common psychiatric disorder, especially depression or anxiety disorders.
Individuals with insomnia often
experience long delays when they go to bed and
fall asleep. In addition, these individuals may wake up several
times during the night only to find difficulty getting
back to sleep. Yet, a subgroup of people
experiences late insomnia or early morning waking. Late Insomnia is characteristic
of severe or melancholic depression. CNX_Psych_04_04_insomniaWithDepression.png
Insomnia that occurs exclusively
during the course of depression or another disorder, does not qualify the diagnostic
criteria of insomnia disorder. Primary insomnia or insomnia disorder is diagnosed
when it not caused by another psychiatric or medical condition, nor induced by medications
or substances. The criteria for dianosing primary insomnia also requires
the occurence of symptoms for at least three nights a week
for at least one month [6].
It is not uncommon for people suffering from insomnia to experience
anxiety about their inability to fall asleep. This
becomes a self-perpetuating cycle because increased anxiety leads to
increased arousal, and higher arousal levels make the prospect of
falling asleep even more unlikely. Chronic insomnia is almost always
associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of
depression.
An illustration depicts the relationship between depression and insomnia.
Tip
Sleep-onset insomnia is more likely due to anxiety, while
late-insomnia is characteristic of severe depression.
The Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) is a seven-item questionnaire that serves as a quick
screening tool for insomnia. It also assesses the severity and nature of insomnia.
Using a Likert-type scale, respondents are asked to rate the
severity of their sleeping problems. The severity of the symptoms, the respondent’s satisfaction
with his or her sleep patterns, the degree to which insomnia interferes with daily functioning,
how noticeable the respondent feels their insomnia is to others, and the overall level
of distress brought on by the sleep issue are all subjective aspects of the
respondent’s sleep that are addressed in the questions.
Many factors may contribute to insomnia, including age,
drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines. Not
surprisingly, insomnia treatment may take one of several different
approaches. People with insomnia might limit their use of
stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their physical
exercise during the day. Some people might turn to over-the-counter
(OTC) or prescribed sleep medications to help them sleep, but this
should be done sparingly because many sleep medications result in
dependence and alter the nature of the sleep cycle, and they can
increase insomnia over time. Non-pharmacological treatments are preferable.
Education about the science of sleep and the implementation of sleep-hygiene
techniques should always be the first step in managing insomnia.
The following are some of the principles of sleep hygiene. The first part
would be to assess a patient’s routines based on these principles to identify
maladaptive habits and tailor the recommendations accordingly. To raise the patient’s
motivation to use these techniques, they may also be informed about the importance of
adequate sleep and the adverse effects of long-term sleep deprivation on our mental
and physical well-being.
Using consistent sleep-wake schedule even on weekends or other holidays is important;
disturbance in the schedule disrupts our circadian rhythm and may lead to
problems such as jet lag.
Exposure to sunlight in the day, and keeping dark at night also help regulate circadian rythms.
bright light, especially blue light, inhibits melatonin production, inducing wakefulness. Thus,
bright light and devices producing bright light, such as computers, tablets, and smartphones, must be
avoided at night. If their use is unavoidable, brightness must be lowered to a minimum
, and a blue-light blocking filter should be turned on.
Performing aerobic exercise in the morning has been shown to improve sleep at night;
such a stimulating activity must, however, be avoided in the evening. The resulting sympathetic
activation may lead to insomnia.
Avoiding day-time naps should be the goal; if unavoidable, a nap should occur before
3 PM and last no longer than 30 minutes.
Ideally, one specific room and bed must be used for sleep which must only be used for sleep.
It must not be used for office or school work or other activities that can be performed in
another room and in different settings, such as a table and a chair. This is based on the
principles of classical conditioning. Over time, as the bed is
used specifically for sleep, it becomes a conditioned stimulus and elicits sleep.
Foods containing caffeine, such as tea, coffee, energy drinks, and cola drinks,
must be avoided after 4 PM. Similarly, excessive consumption of sweets,
smoking cigarette, or using alcohol may impair sleep. Tryptophan containing foods,
such as milk, is encouraged; it is a precursor of serotonin and melatonin and helps with sleep. The quantity
of food consumed should be enough to avoid discomfort due to an empty stomach or overeating. A meal
should be taken at least a couple of hours before bedtime.
For some, sleep restriction may be helpful. In this, the patient is enquired about the
approximate sleep duration, and their bedtime is restricted only to that much interval. For
example, suppose a patient usually falls asleep at 1:00 AM after spending several hours in their bed. In that case,
they must go to bed at around 1 AM and leave immediately upon awakening.
This technique is also based on conditioning, as discussed above.
Gradually, bedtime duration increases as the patient’s sleep improve.
In stimulus control, the patient must avoid going to their bed until they feel drowsy. This interval should be spent sitting in a calm, dark environment and a comfortable chair. Using earbuds with a masking effect can help block noise from a source that can be controlled. White noise machines may also help, especially for those with tinnitus.
Discussing or thinking about distressing or exciting issues can cause sympathetic responses and impair sleep. If issues must be discussed, they should be discussed in the daytime, long before the time for sleep. To avoid preoccupation with intrusive thoughts, the patient is advised to count backward from 500.
During bedtime, room temperature should be at a level where one would need a light blanket. People more readily fall asleep when the temperature is low or when their body temperature drops. A warm water bath before bedtime can thus help induce sleep.
Repeatedly checking time and actively trying to fall asleep is similarly distressing and prevents one from falling asleep. Instead, the patient is advised to try to stay awake.
If anxiety is significant, regular progressive muscle relaxation before bedtime will help.
Aromatherapy with lavender oil may also help.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy for insomnia (CBT-I), is the first-line high-intensity therapy and
is preferable to the use of hypnotics. Behaviours that could contribute to insomnia (e.g., spending more waking time in bed)
are identified and eliminated or replaced.
Implementation of sleep hygiene techniques is an integral component of CBT-I. The treatment also includes stress management techniques. Other components are
sleep-restriction and stimulus control. Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been shown effective to treat insomnia. [7][8]
Sleep Disruption in Depression
In patients with depression, there is a disturbance of sleep continuity; they spend more
time awake and have increased sleep fragmentation. Early morning wakening occurs
characteristically in severe and melancholic depression.
Evidence has shown a disturbance in the sleep architecture, with decreased
slow-wave sleep on electroencephalography.
Disturbances in REM sleep include shortened REM latency, more REM activity
(higher percentage) in the first ½ of the night and a higher REM density.
Sleep deprivation (especially deprivation of REM sleep) has shown a temporary but
beneficial effect on mood in depressed patients resulting in quick improvement.
Antidepressants impair REM sleep; there is a rebound of REM sleep on discontinuation.
Parasomnias comprise a group of sleep
disorders in which unwanted, disruptive motor activity or
experiences during sleep play a role. Parasomnias can occur in either
REM or NREM phases of sleep. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and
night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck,
2000).
In sleepwalking, or somnambulism, the sleeper
engages in relatively complex behaviors ranging from wandering about to
driving an automobile. During a sleepwalking episode, sleepers often
have their eyes open but are not responsive to attempts to
communicate with them. Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave
sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some
affected individuals. [9]
Historically, somnambulism has been treated with various
pharmacotherapies ranging from benzodiazepines to antidepressants.
However, the success rate of such treatments is questionable.
Guilleminault et al. (2005) [10]
found that sleepwalking was not alleviated
with benzodiazepines. However, all of their somnambulistic
patients who also suffered from sleep-related breathing problems showed
a marked decrease in sleepwalking when their breathing problems were
effectively treated.
The aim of these is mainly to prevent harm and, if possible, prevent
the episodes from occurring.
Reassure parents about its benign nature.
Identify and avoid precipitating factors
Avoid waking the patient up during the episode.
Remove obstructions in the bedroom and items on which they may stumble and fall.
Secure windows and cover windows with heavy curtains.
Install locks or alarms on outside doors
Use a nightlight in case
Sleep on the ground floor and place barriers in stairways so to prevent them from the rooftop
Scheduled awakenings (15-30 minutes prior) may be helpful if the episodes occur consistently at roughly the same time.
Forensic Implications: Sleepwalking as a Court Defense?
On January 16, 1997, Scott Falater sat down to dinner with his wife
and children and told them about difficulties he was experiencing on
a project at work. After dinner, he prepared some materials to lead
a church youth group the following morning. Then he
attempted to repair the family’s swimming pool pump before retiring to
bed. The following morning, he awoke to barking dogs and unfamiliar
voices from downstairs. As he went to investigate what was going on,
he was met by a group of police officers who arrested him for the
murder of his wife. [11]
Yarmila Falater’s body was found in the family’s pool with 44 stab
wounds. A neighbor called the police after witnessing Falater
standing over his wife’s body before dragging her into the pool. Upon
a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a
bloody knife in the trunk of Falater’s car, and he had blood stains
on his neck.
Remarkably, Falater insisted that he had no recollection of hurting
his wife in any way. His children and his wife’s parents all agreed
that Falater had an excellent relationship with his wife, and they
could not think of a reason that would provide any motive to
murder her. [11]
Scott Falater had a history of regular episodes of sleepwalking as a
child and he had even behaved violently toward his sister once when
she tried to prevent him from leaving their home in his pajamas
during a sleepwalking episode. He suffered from no apparent
anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. It appeared
that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least,
that is the defense he used when he was trialed for his wife’s murder. [11]
In Falater’s case, a jury found him
guilty of first-degree murder in June of 1999 (CNN, 1999); however,
there are other murder cases where the sleepwalking defense has been
used successfully. As scary as it sounds, many sleep researchers
believe that homicidal sleepwalking is possible in individuals
suffering from the types of sleep disorders described below
(Broughton et al., 1994; Cartwright, 2004; Mahowald, Schenck, &
Cramer Bornemann, 2005; Pressman, 2007).
REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) occurs when
the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur.
Individuals who suffer from RBD have high physical activity levels
during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams. These behaviours
vary widely, including kicking, punching, scratching,
yelling, and behaving like an animal that has been frightened or
attacked. People who suffer from this disorder can injure themselves or
their sleeping partners when engaging in these behaviors. Furthermore,
these types of behaviours ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected
individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred. [12]
Risk of Harm in RBD
Patients with RBD may exhibit violent behaviours and cause injury to themselves or
others. Environmental modification and education of the family about the risks and ways
of prevention is important part of the treatment.
This disorder is associated with several neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson’s.
This relationship is so robust that some view the presence of RBD as a potential aid in diagnosing and treating several neurodegenerative
diseases. [13]
Clonazepam, is most often used to treat RBD. It is administered alone or in
conjunction with doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal
gland). As part of treatment, the sleeping environment is often modified
to make it safer for those suffering from RBD. [14]
A person with restless leg syndrome has
uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or
when trying to fall asleep. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately
moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in
falling or staying asleep. Restless leg syndrome is quite common and has
been associated with several other medical diagnoses, such as
chronic kidney disease and diabetes[15] (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000).
There are a variety of drugs that treat restless leg syndrome:
benzodiazepines, opiates, and anticonvulsants (Restless Legs Syndrome
Foundation, n.d.).
Night terrors present as a panic in
the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape
from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Although
individuals suffering from night terrors appear to be awake, they
generally have no memories of the events, and attempts to
console them are ineffective. Typically, individuals suffering from
night terrors will fall back asleep again within a short time. Night
terrors occur during the NREM phase of sleep (Provini,
Tinuper, Bisulli, & Lagaresi, 2011). Generally, treatment for night
terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or
psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo
Clinic, n.d.).
Sleep apnea is defined by episodes during
which a sleeper’s breathing stops. These episodes can last 10–20 seconds
or longer and often are associated with brief periods of arousal.
While individuals suffering from sleep apnea may not be aware of these
repeated sleep disruptions, they experience increased fatigue levels.
Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek
treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore
loudly and stop breathing for extended periods while sleeping. [16]
Presentation of Sleep Apnoea
Individuals with sleep apnoea are unaware of their sleep disruptions.
Fatigue, excessive daytime sleepiness, and, if a partner has obersved, snoring are
important indicators.
Sleep apnea is much more common among obese
people and is often associated with loud snoring. Surprisingly, sleep
apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease. [17]
While sleep apnea is less common in
thin people, a person who snores loudly or gasps for air should be
evaluated for sleep apnea regardless of weight.
While people are often unaware of their sleep apnea, they are keenly
aware of some of the adverse consequences of insufficient sleep.
Consider a patient who believed that as a result of his sleep apnea, he:
“had three car accidents in six weeks. They were ALL my fault. Two of
them I did not even know I was involved in until afterward.”
– Henry & Rosenthal, 2013, p. 52.
It is not uncommon for people suffering from
undiagnosed or untreated sleep apnea to fear that their careers will be
affected by the lack of sleep, illustrated by this statement from
another patient,
“I am in a job where there is a premium on being mentally
alert. I was sleepy… and having trouble concentrating…. It was
getting to the point where it was kind of scary”
The following are the clinical features of sleep apnoea:
Loud snoring (95%)
Daytime sleepiness (90%)
Unrefreshed or disturbed sleep
Morning headache and confusion
Nocturnal choking
Enuresis
Swelling of the ankles
There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central
sleep apnea. Obstructive sleep apnea occurs
when an individual’s airway becomes blocked during sleep, and the air is
prevented from entering the lungs. In central sleep apnea,
disruption in signals sent from the brain that
regulate breathing cause periods of interrupted breathing (White, 2005).
One of the most common sleep apnea treatments involves using
continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) device. It includes
a mask that fits over the
sleeper’s nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air
into the person’s airways, forcing them to remain open, as shown in
[fig. %s) <cnx_psych_04_04_cpap>. Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and
cover only the nose. This treatment option has proven effective
for people suffering from mild to severe cases of sleep apnea. [18]
However, alternative treatment options are being explored
because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem.
Recently, a new EPAP (expiratory positive air pressure) device has shown
promise in double-blind trials as one su.ch alternative. [19]
Photograph A shows a CPAP device. Photograph B shows a clear full-face CPAP
mask attached to a mannequin’s head with straps
Benzodiazepines and CNS depressants are contraindicated in OSA.
These medications, espeically when used in combination, may cause respiratory depression.
In sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) an
infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. Infants younger than 12
months appear to be at the highest risk for SIDS, and boys have a
greater risk than girls. Several risk factors have been associated
with SIDS including premature birth, smoking within the home, and
hyperthermia. There may also be differences in both brain structure and
function in infants that die from SIDS [20][21] (Thach, 2005).
Preventing SIDS
The substantial amount of research on SIDS has led to several
recommendations to parents to protect their children
([link]). For one, research suggests that:
Infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and
Their cribs should not contain items that pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the crib bars).
Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and
People in the child’s household should abstain from smoking in the home.
Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths
from SIDS in recent years [22][23]
The “Safe to Sleep” campaign logo shows a baby sleeping and the words
“safe to sleep.”
Safe to Sleep campaign started in 1994 as Back to Sleep to teach people
about reducing the risk of SIDS.
Excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) may occur due to primary hypersomnia,
sleep deprivation, or sleep disorder. The following is a summary of common
causes of EDS.
Insufficient night-time sleep
a. Unsatisfactory irregular sleep routines
b. Circadian rhythm sleep disorders
c. Frequent parasomnias
d. Chronic physical illness
e. Psychiatric disorders
Pathological sleep
a. Obstructive sleep apnoea
b. Narcolepsy
c. Other CNS disease
d. Drug effects
e. Kleine-Levin syndrome
f. Atypical depressive illness
Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS) is a self-rated scale used by clinicians
to assess daytime sleepiness. The scale contains a total of 8 items, and each
scored 0-3. From a total score of 24, 11 suggest some degree of daytime sleepiness,
while 16 suggest excessive daytime sleepiness.
The Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT) is a tool determines whether a person has physical fatigue or actual excessive daytime
sleepiness, and to test for central diseases of hypersomnolence such narcolepsy or idiopathic
hypersomnia. It measures the sleep-latency, ie, the interval between the beginning of a daytime nap and the onset of the first indications
of sleep. The test’s premise is that people fall asleep more quickly when they are more sleepy.
Following an overnight sleep-study, the procedure is performed comprising
four or five 20-minute nap opportunities spaced two hours apart. The patient’s brain waves,
EEG, muscle activity, and eye movements are monitored and recorded during the test.
The entire procedure typically lasts a day and takes around 7 hours.
Multiple opportunities ascertain whether there are irregularities in duration of sleep-latency.
Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person
with narcolepsy cannot resist falling asleep
at inopportune times. These sleep episodes are often associated with
cataplexy, a loss of muscle tone, often triggerd by extreme emotions
cuasing muscle weakness, which in some cases involve, complete paralysis of the
voluntary muscles. This is similar to the kind of paralysis experienced
by healthy individuals during
REM sleep. [24][25][26]
Narcoleptic episodes take on other features of REM sleep. For example, around one-third of
individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like
hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks. [27]
Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of
heightened arousal or stress. The typical episode can last from a minute
or two to half an hour. Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people
report that they feel refreshed. [28]
Frequent narcoleptic episodes may interfere with the ability to perform one’s
job or complete schoolwork, and in some situations, narcolepsy can
result in significant harm and injury (e.g., driving a car or operating
machinery or other potentially dangerous equipment).
In addition to these episodes, patients with narcolpey may experience
excessive daytime sleepiness.
Symptoms not associated with a narcoleptic episode include sleep paralysis and hypnagogic
hallucinations. Sleep paralysis is a transient and generalized inability to move or speak during the
transition between sleep and wakefulness, typically occur while falling asleep. The paralysis
is flaccid, and usually complete. Episodes of sleep paralysis usually last only a few seconds,
and less than one minute. Hypnagogic hallucinations also occur when the individual is about
to fall asleep.
Patients with narcolepsy have a reduced sleep latency during the day
and greatly reduced REM latency at night; the patient may enter REM stage at
sleep onset.
Generally, narcolepsy is treated using psychomotor stimulant drugs, such
as amphetamines. [29]
These drugs promote increased levels of
neural activity. Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of the
signaling molecule hypocretin in some areas of the brain (De la
Herrán-Arita & Drucker-Colín, 2012; Han, 2012), and the traditional
stimulant drugs do not directly affect this system. Therefore, it
is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat
narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system.
Variability of Presentation in Narcolepsy
There is tremendous variability among sufferers regarding how symptoms of
narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of
currently available treatment options. This is illustrated by
McCarty’s case study (2010) [30]
of a 50-year-old woman who sought help for the
excessive sleepiness during regular waking hours that she had experienced
for several years. She indicated that she had fallen asleep at
inappropriate or dangerous times, including eating,
socializing with friends, and driving her car. During periods of
emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness in
the right side of her body. Although she did not experience any
dream-like hallucinations, she was diagnosed with narcolepsy due to sleep testing.
The fact that her cataplexy occurred solely
on the right side of her body was quite unusual. Early attempts to treat
her condition with a stimulant drug alone were unsuccessful. However,
her condition improved dramatically with a combination of a stimulant drug
and an antidepressant.
The Kleine-Levin syndrome is a rare secondary sleep disorder.
Most cases are in young men with onset in early adolescence
Patients experience episodes of somnolence and hyperphagia,
often lasting days or weeks and with long intervals of normality between them.
Patients can always be aroused from the daytime sleep, but are
irritable and occasionally exhibit aggression on waking.
Usually, the patient only wakes to eat or empty bladder and bowels during an episode.
Incontinence does not occur. When awake, he eats voraciously, typically eating any food in sight, although the
patient rarely complains of hunger.
Mental symptoms: Some are muddled and experience depression, and disorientation.
Vivid imagery may be prominent, with waking fantasies which are
difficult to disentangle from vivid dreams
Visual and auditory hallucinations may also occur.
Hypersexuality occurs in around 25 % of cases.
Physical signs are few and less frequent. Pulse and temperature is usually normal.
Pupils may be unequal and plantar reflexes may be upgoing. EEG shows the usual changes
of drowsiness or sleep.
Atypical depression vs Klein-Levin Syndrome.
Notice the overlap of symptoms between atypical depression and KLS.
Patients with KLS may exhibit irritablity
and depression. Likewise, pateints with atypical depression
may experience overeating and oversleeping.
Alcohol has a biphasic action on sleep. In the first half of the night,
it decreases sleep onset latency (promotes sleep initially).
Regarding sleep architecture, it leads to an increase in the duration of deep sleep and
relative deprivation of REM sleep.
In the night’s second half, there is a rebound increase in REM sleep duration.
The sleep promotion associated with small doses of alcohol may be related to prior
sleep deprivation.
Alcohol also exacerbates sleep-related breathing disorders, sleep apnoea, and sleepwalking.
Chronic use of excessive amounts of alcohol disrupts all stages of sleep. During withdrawal, the total sleep time is reduced and
non-REM sleep is particularly affected.
Many individuals suffer from some sleep disorder or disturbance
at some point. Insomnia is a common experience in which
people have difficulty falling or staying asleep. Parasomnias involve
unwanted motor behavior or experiences throughout the sleep cycle,
including RBD, sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors.
Sleep apnea occurs when individuals stop breathing during sleep; in
the case of sudden infant death syndrome, infants will stop
breathing during sleep and die. Narcolepsy involves an irresistible urge
to fall asleep during waking hours and is often associated with
cataplexy and hallucination.
Question
The loss of muscle tone or control that is often
associated with narcolepsy:
RBD
CPAP
cataplexy
insomnia
Check Answer
C
Question
An individual may suffer from ________ if there is a disruption
in the brain signals that are sent to the muscles that regulate
breathing.
central sleep apnea
obstructive sleep apnea
narcolepsy
SIDS
Check Answer
A
Question
The most common treatment for ________ involves the use of
amphetamine-like medications.
One of the recommendations that therapists will make to people with
insomnia is to spend less waking time in bed. Why do you
think spending waking time in bed might interfere with the
ability to fall asleep later?
Answers will vary. One possible explanation might invoke
principles of associative learning. If the bed represents a place
for socializing, studying, eating, and so on, then it is possible
that it will become a place that elicits higher levels of arousal,
which would make falling asleep at the appropriate time more
difficult. Answers could also consider a self-perpetuating cycle
referred to when describing insomnia. If an individual is having
trouble falling asleep and that generates anxiety, it might make
sense to remove him from the context where sleep would normally
take place to try to avoid anxiety being associated with that
context.
How is narcolepsy with cataplexy similar to and different from REM
sleep?
Similarities include muscle atony and the hypnagogic
hallucinations associated with narcoleptic episodes. The
differences involve the uncontrollable nature of narcoleptic
attacks and the fact that these come on in situations that would
typically not be associated with sleep of any kind (e.g., instances
of heightened arousal or emotionality).
device used to treat sleep apnea; includes a mask that fits over
the sleeper’s nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that
pumps air into the person’s airways, forcing them to remain open ^
sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis associated with the
REM sleep phase does not occur; sleepers have high levels of
physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing
dreams ^
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders * Identify the
neurotransmitter systems impacted by various categories of drugs *
Describe how different categories of drugs affect behavior and
experience
While we all experience altered states of consciousness in the form of
sleep on a regular basis, some people use drugs and other substances
that result in altered states of consciousness as well. This section
will present information relating to the use of various psychoactive
drugs and problems associated with such use. This will be followed by
brief descriptions of the effects of some of the more well-known drugs
commonly used today.
The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,
Fifth Edition (DSM-5) is used by clinicians to diagnose individuals suffering from various
psychological disorders. Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and
the criteria for specific substance (drug) use disorders are described
in DSM-5. A person who has a substance use disorder often uses more of
the substance than they originally intended to and continues to use that
substance despite experiencing significant adverse consequences. In
individuals diagnosed with a substance use disorder, there is a
compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated with both
physical and psychological dependence.
Physical dependence{: data-type=“term”} involves changes in normal
bodily functions—the user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon
cessation of use. In contrast, a person who has psychological
dependence{: data-type=“term”} has an emotional, rather than
physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve
psychological distress. Tolerance{: data-type=“term”} is linked to
physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and
more drug to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses.
Tolerance can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a
dangerous level—even to the point of overdose and death.
Drug withdrawal{: data-type=“term”} includes a variety of negative
symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. These symptoms
usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. For example, withdrawal
from sedative drugs often produces unpleasant arousal and agitation. In
addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with
substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances.
Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the
diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. This is an
important factor because we can develop tolerance and experience
withdrawal from any number of drugs that we do not abuse. In other
words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in
determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder.
The effects of all psychoactive drugs occur through their interactions
with our endogenous neurotransmitter systems. Many of these drugs, and
their relationships, are shown in [link].
As you have learned, drugs can act as agonists or antagonists of a given
neurotransmitter system. An agonist facilitates the activity of a
neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter
activity.
Ethanol, which we commonly refer to as alcohol, is in a class of
psychoactive drugs known as depressants
([link]). A depressant{:
data-type=“term”} is a drug that tends to suppress central nervous
system activity. Other depressants include barbiturates and
benzodiazepines. These drugs share in common their ability to serve as
agonists of the gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system.
Because GABA has a quieting effect on the brain, GABA agonists also have
a quieting effect; these types of drugs are often prescribed to treat
both anxiety and insomnia.
{: #Figure_04_05_Drugtypes}
Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to
consciousness. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with
feelings of euphoria. As the dose increases, people report feeling
sedated. Generally, alcohol is associated with decreases in reaction
time and visual acuity, lowered levels of alertness, and reduction in
behavioral control. With excessive alcohol use, a person might
experience a complete loss of consciousness and/or difficulty
remembering events that occurred during a period of intoxication (McKim
& Hancock, 2013). In addition, if a pregnant woman consumes alcohol, her
infant may be born with a cluster of birth defects and symptoms
collectively called fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) or fetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS).
With repeated use of many central nervous system depressants, such as
alcohol, a person becomes physically dependent upon the substance and
will exhibit signs of both tolerance and withdrawal. Psychological
dependence on these drugs is also possible. Therefore, the abuse
potential of central nervous system depressants is relatively high.
Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a
life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very
high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. This is of such concern that
people who are trying to overcome addiction to these substances should
only do so under medical supervision.
Stimulants{: data-type=“term”} are drugs that tend to increase
overall levels of neural activity. Many of these drugs act as agonists
of the dopamine neurotransmitter system. Dopamine activity is often
associated with reward and craving; therefore, drugs that affect
dopamine neurotransmission often have abuse liability. Drugs in this
category include cocaine, amphetamines (including methamphetamine),
cathinones (i.e., bath salts), MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and caffeine.
Cocaine can be taken in multiple ways. While many users snort cocaine,
intravenous injection and ingestion are also common. The freebase
version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the
drug. Like many other stimulants, cocaine agonizes the dopamine
neurotransmitter system by blocking the reuptake of dopamine in the
neuronal synapse.
Tip
Crack Cocaine
Crack ([link]) is often considered to
be more addictive than cocaine itself because it is smokable and
reaches the brain very quickly. Crack is often less expensive than
other forms of cocaine; therefore, it tends to be a more accessible
drug for individuals from impoverished segments of society. During
the 1980s, many drug laws were rewritten to punish crack users more
severely than cocaine users. This led to discriminatory sentencing
with low-income, inner-city minority populations receiving the
harshest punishments. The wisdom of these laws has recently been
called into question, especially given research that suggests crack
may not be more addictive than other forms of cocaine, as previously
thought (Haasen & Krausz, 2001; Reinerman, 2007).
{: #Figure_04_05_Crackrock}
See also
Read this interesting newspaper
article describing myths about crack
cocaine.
Amphetamines have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that
they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its
release ([link]). While amphetamines are
often abused, they are also commonly prescribed to children diagnosed
with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). It may seem
counterintuitive that stimulant medications are prescribed to treat a
disorder that involves hyperactivity, but the therapeutic effect comes
from increases in neurotransmitter activity within certain areas of the
brain associated with impulse control.
{: #Figure_04_05_Stimulants}
In recent years, methamphetamine (meth) use has become increasingly
widespread. Methamphetamine{: data-type=“term”} is a type of
amphetamine that can be made from ingredients that are readily available
(e.g., medications containing pseudoephedrine, a compound found in many
over-the-counter cold and flu remedies). Despite recent changes in laws
designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult,
methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively
inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012).
The cocaine, amphetamine, cathinones, and MDMA users seek a euphoric
high{: data-type=“term”}, feelings of intense elation and pleasure,
especially in those users who take the drug via intravenous injection or
smoking. Repeated use of these stimulants can have significant adverse
consequences. Users can experience physical symptoms that include
nausea, elevated blood pressure, and increased heart rate. In addition,
these drugs can cause feelings of anxiety, hallucinations, and paranoia
(Fiorentini et al., 2011). Normal brain functioning is altered after
repeated use of these drugs. For example, repeated use can lead to
overall depletion among the monoamine neurotransmitters (dopamine,
norepinephrine, and serotonin). People may engage in compulsive use of
these stimulant substances in part to try to reestablish normal levels
of these neurotransmitters (Jayanthi & Ramamoorthy, 2005; Rothman,
Blough, & Baumann, 2007).
Caffeine is another stimulant drug. While it is probably the most
commonly used drug in the world, the potency of this particular drug
pales in comparison to the other stimulant drugs described in this
section. Generally, people use caffeine to maintain increased levels of
alertness and arousal. Caffeine is found in many common medicines (such
as weight loss drugs), beverages, foods, and even cosmetics (Herman &
Herman, 2013). While caffeine may have some indirect effects on dopamine
neurotransmission, its primary mechanism of action involves antagonizing
adenosine activity (Porkka-Heiskanen, 2011).
While caffeinepastehere is generally
considered a relatively safe drug, high blood levels of caffeine can
result in insomnia, agitation, muscle twitching, nausea, irregular
heartbeat, and even death (Reissig, Strain, & Griffiths, 2009; Wolt,
Ganetsky, & Babu, 2012). In 2012, Kromann and Nielson reported on a case
study of a 40-year-old woman who suffered significant ill effects from
her use of caffeine. The woman used caffeine in the past to boost her
mood and to provide energy, but over the course of several years, she
increased her caffeine consumption to the point that she was consuming
three liters of soda each day. Although she had been taking a
prescription antidepressant, her symptoms of depression continued to
worsen and she began to suffer physically, displaying significant
warning signs of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Upon admission to
an outpatient clinic for treatment of mood disorders, she met all of the
diagnostic criteria for substance dependence and was advised to
dramatically limit her caffeine intake. Once she was able to limit her
use to less than 12 ounces of soda a day, both her mental and physical
health gradually improved. Despite the prevalence of caffeine use and
the large number of people who confess to suffering from caffeine
addiction, this was the first published description of soda dependence
appearing in scientific literature.
Nicotine is highly addictive, and the use of tobacco products is
associated with increased risks of heart disease, stroke, and a variety
of cancers. Nicotine exerts its effects through its interaction with
acetylcholine receptors. Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter
in motor neurons. In the central nervous system, it plays a role in
arousal and reward mechanisms. Nicotine is most commonly used in the
form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore,
there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation
techniques. To date, people have used a variety of nicotine{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} replacement therapies in addition to
various psychotherapeutic options in an attempt to discontinue their use
of tobacco products. In general, smoking cessation programs may be
effective in the short term, but it is unclear whether these effects
persist (Cropley, Theadom, Pravettoni, & Webb, 2008; Levitt, Shaw, Wong,
& Kaczorowski, 2007; Smedslund, Fisher, Boles, & Lichtenstein, 2004).
An opioid{: data-type=“term”} is one of a category of drugs that
includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. Opioids have
analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain. Humans have an
endogenous opioid neurotransmitter system—the body makes small
quantities of opioid compounds that bind to opioid receptors reducing
pain and producing euphoria. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this
endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for
abuse. Natural opioids, called opiates{: data-type=“term”}, are
derivatives of opium, which is a naturally occurring compound found in
the poppy plant. There are now several synthetic versions of opiate
drugs (correctly called opioids) that have very potent painkilling
effects, and they are often abused. For example, the National Institutes
of Drug Abuse has sponsored research that suggests the misuse and abuse
of the prescription pain killers hydrocodone and oxycodone are
significant public health concerns (Maxwell, 2006). In 2013, the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their
medical use.
Historically, heroin has been a major opioid drug of abuse
([link]). Heroin can be snorted, smoked, or
injected intravenously. Like the stimulants described earlier, the use
of heroin is associated with an initial feeling of euphoria followed by
periods of agitation. Because heroin is often administered via
intravenous injection, users often bear needle track marks on their arms
and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for
contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV.
{: #Figure_04_05_Heroin}
Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are
often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea
medications. Given that withdrawal from a drug often involves an
experience opposite to the effect of the drug, it should be no surprise
that opioid withdrawal resembles a severe case of the flu. While opioid
withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening
(Julien, 2005). Still, people experiencing opioid withdrawal may be
given methadone to make withdrawal from the drug less difficult.
Methadone{: data-type=“term”} is a synthetic opioid that is less
euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs. Methadone clinics{:
data-type=“term”} help people who previously struggled with opioid
addiction manage withdrawal symptoms through the use of methadone. Other
drugs, including the opioid buprenorphine, have also been used to
alleviate symptoms of opiate withdrawal.
Codeine{: data-type=“term”} is an opioid with relatively low
potency. It is often prescribed for minor pain, and it is available
over-the-counter in some other countries. Like all opioids, codeine does
have abuse potential. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications
is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista,
Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012).
A hallucinogen{: data-type=“term”} is one of a class of drugs that
results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences
([link]). In some cases, users
experience vivid visual hallucinations. It is also common for these
types of drugs to cause hallucinations of body sensations (e.g., feeling
as if you are a giant) and a skewed perception of the passage of time.
{:
#Figure_04_05_Psychedelic}
As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the
neurotransmitter systems they affect. Mescaline and LSD are serotonin
agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act
as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. In general, these drugs
are not thought to possess the same sort of abuse potential as other
classes of drugs discussed in this section.
While the possession and use of marijuana is illegal in most states,
it is now legal in Washington and Colorado to possess limited
quantities of marijuana for recreational use
([link]). In contrast, medical
marijuana use is now legal in nearly half of the United States and in
the District of Columbia. Medical marijuana is marijuana that is
prescribed by a doctor for the treatment of a health condition. For
example, people who undergo chemotherapy will often be prescribed
marijuana to stimulate their appetites and prevent excessive weight
loss resulting from the side effects of chemotherapy treatment.
Marijuana may also have some promise in the treatment of a variety of
medical conditions (Mather, Rauwendaal, Moxham-Hall, & Wodak, 2013;
Robson, 2014; Schicho & Storr, 2014).
{:
#Figure_04_05_Marijuana}
While medical marijuana laws have been passed on a state-by-state
basis, federal laws still classify this as an illicit substance,
making conducting research on the potentially beneficial medicinal
uses of marijuana problematic. There is quite a bit of controversy
within the scientific community as to the extent to which marijuana
might have medicinal benefits due to a lack of large-scale,
controlled research (Bostwick, 2012). As a result, many scientists
have urged the federal government to allow for relaxation of current
marijuana laws and classifications in order to facilitate a more
widespread study of the drug’s effects (Aggarwal et al., 2009;
Bostwick, 2012; Kogan & Mechoulam, 2007).
Until recently, the United States Department of Justice routinely
arrested people involved and seized marijuana used in medicinal
settings. In the latter part of 2013, however, the United States
Department of Justice issued statements indicating that they would
not continue to challenge state medical marijuana laws. This shift in
policy may be in response to the scientific community’s
recommendations and/or reflect changing public opinion regarding
marijuana.
Substance use disorder is defined in DSM-5 as a compulsive pattern of
drug use despite negative consequences. Both physical and psychological
dependence are important parts of this disorder. Alcohol, barbiturates,
and benzodiazepines are central nervous system depressants that affect
GABA neurotransmission. Cocaine, amphetamine, cathinones, and MDMA are
all central nervous stimulants that agonize dopamine neurotransmission,
while nicotine and caffeine affect acetylcholine and adenosine,
respectively. Opiate drugs serve as powerful analgesics through their
effects on the endogenous opioid neurotransmitter system, and
hallucinogenic drugs cause pronounced changes in sensory and perceptual
experiences. The hallucinogens are variable with regards to the specific
neurotransmitter systems they affect.
Question
________ occurs when a drug user requires more and more of a
given drug in order to experience the same effects of the drug.
The negative health consequences of both alcohol and tobacco
products are well-documented. A drug like marijuana, on the other
hand, is generally considered to be as safe, if not safer than
these legal drugs. Why do you think marijuana use continues to be
illegal in many parts of the United States?
One possibility involves the cultural acceptance and long history
of alcohol and tobacco use in our society. No doubt, money comes
into play as well. Growing tobacco and producing alcohol on a
large scale is a well-regulated and taxed process. Given that
marijuana is essentially a weed that requires little care to grow,
it would be much more difficult to regulate its production. Recent
events suggest that cultural attitudes regarding marijuana are
changing, and it is quite likely that its illicit status will be
adapted accordingly.
Why are programs designed to educate people about the dangers of
using tobacco products just as important as developing tobacco
cessation programs?
Given that currently available programs designed to help people
quit using tobacco products are not necessarily effective in the
long term, programs designed to prevent people from using these
products in the first place may be the best hope for dealing with
the enormous public health concerns associated with tobacco use.
Many people experiment with some sort of psychoactive substance at
some point in their lives. Why do you think people are motivated
to use substances that alter consciousness?
one of a category of drugs that has strong analgesic properties;
opiates are produced from the resin of the opium poppy; includes
heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine ^
variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is
discontinued
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define hypnosis
and meditation * Understand the similarities and differences of
hypnosis and meditation
Our states of consciousness change as we move from wakefulness to sleep.
We also alter our consciousness through the use of various psychoactive
drugs. This final section will consider hypnotic and meditative states
as additional examples of altered states of consciousness experienced by
some individuals.
Hypnosis{: data-type=“term”} is a state of extreme self-focus and
attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli. In
the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion
in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient.
Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be
buried deeply in someone’s memory. For individuals who are especially
open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can prove to be a very
effective technique, and brain imaging studies have demonstrated that
hypnotic states are associated with global changes in brain functioning
(Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund, Vanhaudenhuyse, Boly, Laureys, &
Soddu, 2012).
Historically, hypnosis has been viewed with some suspicion because of
its portrayal in popular media and entertainment
([link]). Therefore, it is important to
make a distinction between hypnosis as an empirically based therapeutic
approach versus as a form of entertainment. Contrary to popular belief,
individuals undergoing hypnosis usually have clear memories of the
hypnotic experience and are in control of their own behaviors. While
hypnosis may be useful in enhancing memory or a skill, such enhancements
are very modest in nature (Raz, 2011).
{: #Figure_04_06_Hypnotist}
How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of hypnosis?
While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent
in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with
hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). These components include:
The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the
hypnotist’s words or a ticking watch.
The participant is made comfortable and is directed to be relaxed and
sleepy.
The participant is told to be open to the process of hypnosis, trust
the hypnotist and let go.
The participant is encouraged to use his or her imagination.
These steps are conducive to being open to the heightened suggestibility
of hypnosis.
People vary in terms of their ability to be hypnotized, but a review of
available research suggests that most people are at least moderately
hypnotizable (Kihlstrom, 2013). Hypnosis in conjunction with other
techniques is used for a variety of therapeutic purposes and has shown
to be at least somewhat effective for pain management, treatment of
depression and anxiety, smoking cessation, and weight loss (Alladin,
2012; Elkins, Johnson, & Fisher, 2012; Golden, 2012; Montgomery, Schnur,
& Kravits, 2012).
Some scientists are working to determine whether the power of suggestion
can affect cognitive processes such as learning, with a view to using
hypnosis in educational settings (Wark, 2011). Furthermore, there is
some evidence that hypnosis can alter processes that were once thought
to be automatic and outside the purview of voluntary control, such as
reading (Lifshitz, Aubert Bonn, Fischer, Kashem, & Raz, 2013; Raz,
Shapiro, Fan, & Posner, 2002). However, it should be noted that others
have suggested that the automaticity of these processes remains intact
(Augustinova & Ferrand, 2012).
How does hypnosis work? Two theories attempt to answer this question:
One theory views hypnosis as dissociation and the other theory views it
as the performance of a social role. According to the dissociation view,
hypnosis is effectively a dissociated state of consciousness, much like
our earlier example where you may drive to work, but you are only
minimally aware of the process of driving because your attention is
focused elsewhere. This theory is supported by Ernest Hilgard’s research
into hypnosis and pain. In Hilgard’s experiments, he induced
participants into a state of hypnosis, and placed their arms into ice
water. Participants were told they would not feel pain, but they could
press a button if they did; while they reported not feeling pain, they
did, in fact, press the button, suggesting a dissociation of
consciousness while in the hypnotic state (Hilgard & Hilgard, 1994).
Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive
theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the
social role of a hypnotized person. As you will learn when you study
social roles, people’s behavior can be shaped by their expectations of
how they should act in a given situation. Some view a hypnotized
person’s behavior not as an altered or dissociated state of
consciousness, but as their fulfillment of the social expectations for
that role.
Meditation{: data-type=“term”} is the act of focusing on a single
target (such as the breath or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of
the moment. While hypnosis is generally achieved through the interaction
of a therapist and the person being treated, an individual can perform
meditation alone. Often, however, people wishing to learn to meditate
receive some training in techniques to achieve a meditative state. A
meditative state, as shown by EEG recordings of newly-practicing
meditators, is not an altered state of consciousness per se; however,
patterns of brain waves exhibited by expert meditators may represent a
unique state of consciousness (Fell, Axmacher, & Haupt, 2010).
Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central
feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a
state of relaxed awareness and focus (Chen et al., 2013; Lang et al.,
2012). Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. In the
variation of meditation, the meditator’s attention is focused on some
internal process or an external object (Zeidan, Grant, Brown, McHaffie,
& Coghill, 2012).
Meditative techniques have their roots in religious practices
([link]), but their use has grown in
popularity among practitioners of alternative medicine. Research
indicates that meditation may help reduce blood pressure, and the
American Heart Association suggests that meditation might be used in
conjunction with more traditional treatments as a way to manage
hypertension, although there is not sufficient data for a recommendation
to be made (Brook et al., 2013). Like hypnosis, meditation also shows
promise in stress management, sleep quality (Caldwell, Harrison, Adams,
Quin, & Greeson, 2010), treatment of mood and anxiety disorders (Chen et
al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2010; Vøllestad, Nielsen, & Nielsen, 2012),
and pain management (Reiner, Tibi, & Lipsitz, 2013).
{:
#Figure_04_06_Buddha}
See also
Feeling stressed? Think meditation might help? This instructional
video teaches how to
use Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress.
See also
Watch this video describe
the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent
specific mindfulness-meditative techniques.
Hypnosis is a focus on the self that involves suggested changes of
behavior and experience. Meditation involves relaxed, yet focused,
awareness. Both hypnotic and meditative states may involve altered
states of consciousness that have potential application for the
treatment of a variety of physical and psychological disorders.
Question
________ is most effective in individuals that are very open to
the power of suggestion.
hypnosis
meditation
mindful awareness
cognitive therapy {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
________ has its roots in religious practice.
hypnosis
meditation
cognitive therapy
behavioral therapy {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Meditation may be helpful in ________.
pain management
stress control
treating the flu
both a and b {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Research suggests that cognitive processes, such as learning, may
be affected by ________.
What advantages exist for researching the potential health
benefits of hypnosis?
Healthcare and pharmaceutical costs continue to skyrocket. If
alternative approaches to dealing with these problems could be
developed that would be relatively inexpensive, then the potential
benefits are many.
What types of studies would be most convincing regarding the
effectiveness of meditation in the treatment for some type of
physical or mental disorder?
Ideally, double-blind experimental trials would be best suited to
speak to the effectiveness of meditation. At the very least, some
sort of randomized control trial would be very informative.
Under what circumstances would you be willing to consider hypnosis
and/or meditation as a treatment option? What kind of information
would you need before you made a decision to use these techniques?
clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness
and focus
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If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Imagine standing on a city street corner. You might be struck by
movement everywhere as cars and people go about their business, by the
sound of a street musician’s melody or a horn honking in the distance,
by the smell of exhaust fumes or of food being sold by a nearby vendor,
and by the sensation of hard pavement under your feet.
We rely on our sensory systems to provide important information about
our surroundings. We use this information to successfully navigate and
interact with our environment so that we can find nourishment, seek
shelter, maintain social relationships, and avoid potentially dangerous
situations.
This chapter will provide an overview of how sensory information is
received and processed by the nervous system and how that affects our
conscious experience of the world. We begin by learning the distinction
between sensation and perception. Then we consider the physical
properties of light and sound stimuli, along with an overview of the
basic structure and function of the major sensory systems. The chapter
will close with a discussion of a historically important theory of
perception called Gestalt.
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Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Distinguish
between sensation and perception * Describe the concepts of absolute
threshold and difference threshold * Discuss the roles attention,
motivation, and sensory adaptation play in perception
What does it mean to sense something? Sensory receptors are specialized
neurons that respond to specific types of stimuli. When sensory
information is detected by a sensory receptor, sensation{:
data-type=“term”} has occurred. For example, light that enters the eye
causes chemical changes in cells that line the back of the eye. These
cells relay messages, in the form of action potentials (as you learned
when studying biopsychology), to the central nervous system. The
conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential is known as
transduction{: data-type=“term”}.
You have probably known since elementary school that we have five
senses: vision, hearing (audition), smell (olfaction), taste
(gustation), and touch (somatosensation). It turns out that this notion
of five senses is oversimplified. We also have sensory systems that
provide information about balance (the vestibular sense), body position
and movement (proprioception and kinesthesia), pain (nociception), and
temperature (thermoception).
The sensitivity of a given sensory system to the relevant stimuli can be
expressed as an absolute threshold. Absolute threshold{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the minimum amount of stimulus energy that
must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time. Another
way to think about this is by asking how dim can a light be or how soft
can a sound be and still be detected half of the time. The sensitivity
of our sensory receptors can be quite amazing. It has been estimated
that on a clear night, the most sensitive sensory cells in the back of
the eye can detect a candle flame 30 miles away (Okawa & Sampath, 2007).
Under quiet conditions, the hair cells (the receptor cells of the inner
ear) can detect the tick of a clock 20 feet away (Galanter, 1962).
It is also possible for us to get messages that are presented below the
threshold for conscious awareness—these are called subliminal
messages{: data-type=“term”}. A stimulus reaches a physiological
threshold when it is strong enough to excite sensory receptors and send
nerve impulses to the brain: This is an absolute threshold. A message
below that threshold is said to be subliminal: We receive it, but we are
not consciously aware of it. Over the years there has been a great deal
of speculation about the use of subliminal messages in advertising, rock
music, and self-help audio programs. Research evidence shows that in
laboratory settings, people can process and respond to information
outside of awareness. But this does not mean that we obey these messages
like zombies; in fact, hidden messages have little effect on behavior
outside the laboratory (Kunst-Wilson & Zajonc, 1980; Rensink, 2004;
Nelson, 2008; Radel, Sarrazin, Legrain, & Gobancé, 2009; Loersch, Durso,
& Petty, 2013).
Absolute thresholds are generally measured under incredibly controlled
conditions in situations that are optimal for sensitivity. Sometimes, we
are more interested in how much difference in stimuli is required to
detect a difference between them. This is known as the just noticeable
difference (jnd){: data-type=“term”} or difference threshold{:
data-type=“term”}. Unlike the absolute threshold, the difference
threshold changes depending on the stimulus intensity. As an example,
imagine yourself in a very dark movie theater. If an audience member
were to receive a text message on her cell phone which caused her screen
to light up, chances are that many people would notice the change in
illumination in the theater. However, if the same thing happened in a
brightly lit arena during a basketball game, very few people would
notice. The cell phone brightness does not change, but its ability to be
detected as a change in illumination varies dramatically between the two
contexts. Ernst Weber proposed this theory of change in difference
threshold in the 1830s, and it has become known as Weber’s law: The
difference threshold is a constant fraction of the original stimulus, as
the example illustrates.
While our sensory receptors are constantly collecting information from
the environment, it is ultimately how we interpret that information that
affects how we interact with the world. Perception{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the way sensory information is organized,
interpreted, and consciously experienced. Perception involves both
bottom-up and top-down processing. Bottom-up processing{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the fact that perceptions are built from
sensory input. On the other hand, how we interpret those sensations is
influenced by our available knowledge, our experiences, and our
thoughts. This is called top-down processing{: data-type=“term”}.
One way to think of this concept is that sensation is a physical
process, whereas perception is psychological. For example, upon walking
into a kitchen and smelling the scent of baking cinnamon rolls, the
sensation is the scent receptors detecting the odor of cinnamon, but
the perception may be “Mmm, this smells like the bread Grandma used to
bake when the family gathered for holidays.”
Although our perceptions are built from sensations, not all sensations
result in perception. In fact, we often don’t perceive stimuli that
remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time. This is known
as sensory adaptation{: data-type=“term”}. Imagine entering a
classroom with an old analog clock. Upon first entering the room, you
can hear the ticking of the clock; as you begin to engage in
conversation with classmates or listen to your professor greet the
class, you are no longer aware of the ticking. The clock is still
ticking, and that information is still affecting sensory receptors of
the auditory system. The fact that you no longer perceive the sound
demonstrates sensory adaptation and shows that while closely associated,
sensation and perception are different.
There is another factor that affects sensation and perception:
attention. Attention plays a significant role in determining what is
sensed versus what is perceived. Imagine you are at a party full of
music, chatter, and laughter. You get involved in an interesting
conversation with a friend, and you tune out all the background noise.
If someone interrupted you to ask what song had just finished playing,
you would probably be unable to answer that question.
See also
See for yourself how inattentional blindness works by checking out
this selective attention test
from Simons and Chabris (1999).
One of the most interesting demonstrations of how important attention is
in determining our perception of the environment occurred in a famous
study conducted by Daniel Simons and Christopher Chabris (1999). In this
study, participants watched a video of people dressed in black and white
passing basketballs. Participants were asked to count the number of
times the team in white passed the ball. During the video, a person
dressed in a black gorilla costume walks among the two teams. You would
think that someone would notice the gorilla, right? Nearly half of the
people who watched the video didn’t notice the gorilla at all, despite
the fact that he was clearly visible for nine seconds. Because
participants were so focused on the number of times the white team was
passing the ball, they completely tuned out other visual information.
Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack
of attention is called inattentional blindness{:
data-type=“term”}.
In a similar experiment, researchers tested inattentional blindness by
asking participants to observe images moving across a computer screen.
They were instructed to focus on either white or black objects,
disregarding the other color. When a red cross passed across the screen,
about one third of subjects did not notice it
([link]) (Most, Simons, Scholl, & Chabris,
2000).
{: #Figure_05_01_Cross}
Motivation can also affect perception. Have you ever been expecting a
really important phone call and, while taking a shower, you think you
hear the phone ringing, only to discover that it is not? If so, then you
have experienced how motivation to detect a meaningful stimulus can
shift our ability to discriminate between a true sensory stimulus and
background noise. The ability to identify a stimulus when it is embedded
in a distracting background is called signal detection theory{:
data-type=“term”}. This might also explain why a mother is awakened by a
quiet murmur from her baby but not by other sounds that occur while she
is asleep. Signal detection theory has practical applications, such as
increasing air traffic controller accuracy. Controllers need to be able
to detect planes among many signals (blips) that appear on the radar
screen and follow those planes as they move through the sky. In fact,
the original work of the researcher who developed signal detection
theory was focused on improving the sensitivity of air traffic
controllers to plane blips (Swets, 1964).
Our perceptions can also be affected by our beliefs, values, prejudices,
expectations, and life experiences. As you will see later in this
chapter, individuals who are deprived of the experience of binocular
vision during critical periods of development have trouble perceiving
depth (Fawcett, Wang, & Birch, 2005). The shared experiences of people
within a given cultural context can have pronounced effects on
perception. For example, Marshall Segall, Donald Campbell, and Melville
Herskovits (1963) published the results of a multinational study in
which they demonstrated that individuals from Western cultures{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} were more prone to experience certain
types of visual illusions than individuals from non-Western cultures,
and vice versa. One such illusion that Westerners were more likely to
experience was the Müller-Lyerpastehere
illusion ([link]): The lines appear to be
different lengths, but they are actually the same length.
{: #Figure_05_01_MullerLyer}
These perceptual differences were consistent with differences in the
types of environmental features experienced on a regular basis by people
in a given cultural context. People in Western cultures, for example,
have a perceptual context of buildings with straight lines, what
Segall’s study called a carpentered world (Segall et al., 1966). In
contrast, people from certain non-Western cultures with an uncarpentered
view, such as the Zulu of South Africa, whose villages are made up of
round huts arranged in circles, are less susceptible to this illusion
(Segall et al., 1999). It is not just vision that is affected by
cultural factors. Indeed, research has demonstrated that the ability to
identify an odor, and rate its pleasantness and its intensity, varies
cross-culturally (Ayabe-Kanamura, Saito, Distel, Martínez-Gómez, &
Hudson, 1998).
Children described as thrill seekers are more likely to show taste
preferences for intense sour flavors (Liem, Westerbeek, Wolterink, Kok,
& de Graaf, 2004), which suggests that basic aspects of personality
might affect perception. Furthermore, individuals who hold positive
attitudes toward reduced-fat foods are more likely to rate foods labeled
as reduced fat as tasting better than people who have less positive
attitudes about these products (Aaron, Mela, & Evans, 1994).
Sensation occurs when sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli.
Perception involves the organization, interpretation, and conscious
experience of those sensations. All sensory systems have both absolute
and difference thresholds, which refer to the minimum amount of stimulus
energy or the minimum amount of difference in stimulus energy required
to be detected about 50% of the time, respectively. Sensory adaptation,
selective attention, and signal detection theory can help explain what
is perceived and what is not. In addition, our perceptions are affected
by a number of factors, including beliefs, values, prejudices, culture,
and life experiences.
Question
________ refers to the minimum amount of stimulus energy
required to be detected 50% of the time.
absolute threshold
difference threshold
just noticeable difference
transduction {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Decreased sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus is known as
________.
transduction
difference threshold
sensory adaptation
inattentional blindness {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
________ involves the conversion of sensory stimulus energy into
neural impulses.
sensory adaptation
inattentional blindness
difference threshold
transduction {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ occurs when sensory information is organized,
interpreted, and consciously experienced.
Not everything that is sensed is perceived. Do you think there
could ever be a case where something could be perceived without
being sensed?
This would be a good time for students to think about claims of
extrasensory perception. Another interesting topic would be the
phantom limb phenomenon experienced by amputees.
Please generate a novel example of how just noticeable difference
can change as a function of stimulus intensity.
There are many potential examples. One example involves the
detection of weight differences. If two people are holding
standard envelopes and one contains a quarter while the other is
empty, the difference in weight between the two is easy to detect.
However, if those envelopes are placed inside two textbooks of
equal weight, the ability to discriminate which is heavier is much
more difficult.
Think about a time when you failed to notice something around you
because your attention was focused elsewhere. If someone pointed
it out, were you surprised that you hadn’t noticed it right away?
conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Describe important physical features of wave forms
Show how physical properties of light waves are associated with perceptual experience
Show how physical properties of sound waves are associated with perceptual experience
Visual and auditory stimuli both occur in the form of waves. Although
the two stimuli are very different in terms of composition, wave forms
share similar characteristics that are especially important to our
visual and auditory perceptions. In this section, we describe the
physical properties of the waves as well as the perceptual experiences
associated with them.
Two physical characteristics of a wave are amplitude and wavelength
([link]). The amplitude{:
data-type=“term”} of a wave is the height of a wave as measured from the
highest point on the wave (peak{: data-type=“term”} or
crest{: data-type=“term”}) to the lowest point on the wave
(trough{: data-type=“term”}). Wavelength{: data-type=“term”}
refers to the length of a wave from one peak to the next.
{: #Figure_05_02_Wave}
Wavelength is directly related to the frequency of a given wave form.
Frequency{: data-type=“term”} refers to the number of waves that
pass a given point in a given time period and is often expressed in
terms of hertz (Hz){: data-type=“term”}, or cycles per second.
Longer wavelengths will have lower frequencies, and shorter wavelengths
will have higher frequencies ([link]).
The visible spectrum is the portion of the
larger electromagnetic spectrum that we can
see. As [link] shows, the electromagnetic
spectrum encompasses all of the electromagnetic radiation that occurs in
our environment and includes gamma rays, x-rays, ultraviolet light,
visible light, infrared light, microwaves, and radio waves. The visible
spectrum in humans is associated with wavelengths that range from 380 to
740 nm—a very small distance, since a nanometer (nm) is one billionth of
a meter. Other species can detect other portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum. For instance, honeybees can see light in the ultraviolet range
(Wakakuwa, Stavenga, & Arikawa, 2007), and some snakes can detect
infrared radiation in addition to more traditional visual light cues
(Chen, Deng, Brauth, Ding, & Tang, 2012; Hartline, Kass, & Loop, 1978).
{: #Figure_05_02_Spectrum}
In humans, light wavelength is associated with perception of colour
([link]). Within the visible spectrum, our
experience of red is associated with longer wavelengths, greens are
intermediate, and blues and violets are shorter in wavelength. (An easy
way to remember this is the mnemonic ROYGBIV: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.) The
amplitude of light waves is associated with our experience of brightness
or intensity of colour, with larger amplitudes appearing brighter.
Like light waves, the physical properties of sound waves are associated
with various aspects of our perception of sound. The frequency of a
sound wave is associated with our perception of that sound’s
pitch. High-frequency sound waves are
perceived as high-pitched sounds, while low-frequency sound waves are
perceived as low-pitched sounds. The audible range of sound frequencies
is between 20 and 20000 Hz, with greatest sensitivity to those
frequencies that fall in the middle of this range.
As was the case with the visible spectrum, other species show
differences in their audible ranges. For instance, chickens have a very
limited audible range, from 125 to 2000 Hz. Mice have an audible range
from 1000 to 91000 Hz, and the beluga whale’s audible range is from 1000
to 123000 Hz. Our pet dogs and cats have audible ranges of about
70–45000 Hz and 45–64000 Hz, respectively (Strain, 2003).
The loudness of a given sound is closely associated with the amplitude
of the sound wave. Higher amplitudes are associated with louder sounds.
Loudness is measured in terms of decibels (dB){:
data-type=“term”}, a logarithmic unit of sound intensity. A typical
conversation would correlate with 60 dB; a rock concert might check in
at 120 dB ([link]). A whisper 5 feet away
or rustling leaves are at the low end of our hearing range; sounds like
a window air conditioner, a normal conversation, and even heavy traffic
or a vacuum cleaner are within a tolerable range. However, there is the
potential for hearing damage from about 80 dB to 130 dB: These are
sounds of a food processor, power lawnmower, heavy truck (25 feet away),
subway train (20 feet away), live rock music, and a jackhammer. The
threshold for pain is about 130 dB, a jet plane taking off or a revolver
firing at close range (Dunkle, 1982).
Although wave amplitude is generally associated with loudness, there is
some interaction between frequency and amplitude in our perception of
loudness within the audible range. For example, a 10 Hz sound wave is
inaudible no matter the amplitude of the wave. A 1000 Hz sound wave, on
the other hand, would vary dramatically in terms of perceived loudness
as the amplitude of the wave increased.
See also
Watch this brief video
demonstrating how frequency and amplitude interact in our perception
of loudness.
Of course, different musical instruments can play the same musical note
at the same level of loudness, yet they still sound quite different.
This is known as the timbre of a sound. Timbre
refers to a sound’s purity, and it is affected by the complex interplay
of frequency, amplitude, and timing of sound waves.
Both light and sound can be described in terms of wave forms with
physical characteristics like amplitude, wavelength, and timbre.
Wavelength and frequency are inversely related so that longer waves have
lower frequencies, and shorter waves have higher frequencies. In the
visual system, a light wave’s wavelength is generally associated with
colour, and its amplitude is associated with brightness. In the auditory
system, a sound’s frequency is associated with pitch, and its amplitude
is associated with loudness.
Question
Which of the following correctly matches the pattern in our
perception of colour as we move from short wavelengths to long
wavelengths?
red to orange to yellow
yellow to orange to red
yellow to red to orange
orange to yellow to red
Check Answer
B
Question
The visible spectrum includes light that ranges from about
________.
400–700 nm
200–900 nm
20–20000 Hz
10–20 dB
Check Answer
A
Question
The electromagnetic spectrum includes ________.
radio waves
x-rays
infrared light
all of the above
Check Answer
D
Question
The audible range for humans is ________.
380–740 Hz
10–20 dB
less than 300 dB
20-20,000 Hz
Check Answer
D
Question
The quality of a sound that is affected by frequency, amplitude,
and timing of the sound wave is known as ________.
Why do you think other species have such different ranges of
sensitivity for both visual and auditory stimuli compared to
humans?
Why do you think humans are especially sensitive to sounds with
frequencies that fall in the middle portion of the audible range?
Once again, one could make an evolutionary argument here. Given
that the human voice falls in this middle range and the importance
of communication among humans, one could argue that it is quite
adaptive to have an audible range that centers on this particular
type of stimulus.
If you grew up with a family pet, then you have surely noticed
that they often seem to hear things that you don’t hear. Now that
you’ve read this section, you probably have some insight as to why
this may be. How would you explain this to a friend who never had
the opportunity to take a class like this?
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
basic anatomy of the visual system * Discuss how rods and cones
contribute to different aspects of vision * Describe how monocular
and binocular cues are used in the perception of depth
The visual system constructs a mental representation of the world around
us ([link]). This contributes to our ability to
successfully navigate through physical space and interact with important
individuals and objects in our environments. This section will provide
an overview of the basic anatomy and function of the visual system. In
addition, we will explore our ability to perceive color and depth.
The eye is the major sensory organ involved in vision{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} ([link]). Light
waves are transmitted across the cornea and enter the eye through the
pupil. The cornea{: data-type=“term”} is the transparent covering
over the eye. It serves as a barrier between the inner eye and the
outside world, and it is involved in focusing light waves that enter the
eye. The pupil{: data-type=“term”} is the small opening in the eye
through which light passes, and the size of the pupil can change as a
function of light levels as well as emotional arousal. When light levels
are low, the pupil will become dilated, or expanded, to allow more light
to enter the eye. When light levels are high, the pupil will constrict,
or become smaller, to reduce the amount of light that enters the eye.
The pupil’s size is controlled by muscles that are connected to the
iris{: data-type=“term”}, which is the colored portion of the eye.
{:
#Figure_05_03_Eye}
After passing through the pupil, light crosses the lens{:
data-type=“term”}, a curved, transparent structure that serves to
provide additional focus. The lens is attached to muscles that can
change its shape to aid in focusing light that is reflected from near or
far objects. In a normal-sighted individual, the lens will focus images
perfectly on a small indentation in the back of the eye known as the
fovea{: data-type=“term”}, which is part of the retina{:
data-type=“term”}, the light-sensitive lining of the eye. The fovea
contains densely packed specialized photoreceptor cells
([link]). These photoreceptor{:
data-type=“term”} cells, known as cones, are light-detecting cells. The
cones{: data-type=“term”} are specialized types of photoreceptors
that work best in bright light conditions. Cones are very sensitive to
acute detail and provide tremendous spatial resolution. They also are
directly involved in our ability to perceive color.
While cones are concentrated in the fovea, where images tend to be
focused, rods, another type of photoreceptor, are located throughout the
remainder of the retina. Rods{: data-type=“term”} are specialized
photoreceptors that work well in low light conditions, and while they
lack the spatial resolution and color function of the cones, they are
involved in our vision in dimly lit environments as well as in our
perception of movement on the periphery of our visual field.
{:
#Figure_05_03_RodsCones}
We have all experienced the different sensitivities of rods and cones
when making the transition from a brightly lit environment to a dimly
lit environment. Imagine going to see a blockbuster movie on a clear
summer day. As you walk from the brightly lit lobby into the dark
theater, you notice that you immediately have difficulty seeing much of
anything. After a few minutes, you begin to adjust to the darkness and
can see the interior of the theater. In the bright environment, your
vision was dominated primarily by cone activity. As you move to the dark
environment, rod activity dominates, but there is a delay in
transitioning between the phases. If your rods do not transform light
into nerve impulses as easily and efficiently as they should, you will
have difficulty seeing in dim light, a condition known as night
blindness.
Rods and cones are connected (via several interneurons) to retinal
ganglion cells. Axons from the retinal ganglion cells converge and exit
through the back of the eye to form the optic nerve{:
data-type=“term”}. The optic nerve carries visual information from the
retina to the brain. There is a point in the visual field called the
blind spot{: data-type=“term”}: Even when light from a small
object is focused on the blind spot, we do not see it. We are not
consciously aware of our blind spots for two reasons: First, each eye
gets a slightly different view of the visual field; therefore, the blind
spots do not overlap. Second, our visual system fills in the blind spot
so that although we cannot respond to visual information that occurs in
that portion of the visual field, we are also not aware that information
is missing.
The optic nerve from each eye merges just below the brain at a point
called the optic chiasm{: data-type=“term”}. As
[link] shows, the optic chiasm is an
X-shaped structure that sits just below the cerebral cortex at the front
of the brain. At the point of the optic chiasm, information from the
right visual field (which comes from both eyes) is sent to the left side
of the brain, and information from the left visual field is sent to the
right side of the brain.
{: #Figure_05_03_OpticChias}
Once inside the brain, visual information is sent via a number of
structures to the occipital lobe at the back of the brain for
processing. Visual information might be processed in parallel pathways
which can generally be described as the “what pathway” and the
“where/how” pathway. The “what pathway” is involved in object
recognition and identification, while the “where/how pathway” is
involved with location in space and how one might interact with a
particular visual stimulus (Milner & Goodale, 2008; Ungerleider & Haxby,
1994). For example, when you see a ball rolling down the street, the
“what pathway” identifies what the object is, and the “where/how
pathway” identifies its location or movement in space.
We do not see the world in black and white; neither do we see it as
two-dimensional (2-D) or flat (just height and width, no depth). Let’s
look at how color vision works and how we perceive three dimensions
(height, width, and depth).
Normal-sighted individuals have three different types of cones that
mediate color visionpastehere. Each of
these cone types is maximally sensitive to a slightly different
wavelength of light. According to the trichromatic theory of color
vision{: data-type=“term”}, shown in
[link], all colors in the spectrum can be
produced by combining red, green, and blue. The three types of cones are
each receptive to one of the colors.
{:
#Figure_05_03_Trichrom}
The trichromatic theory of color vision is not the only theory—another
major theory of color vision is known as the opponent-process
theory{: data-type=“term”}. According to this theory, color is coded
in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and green-red. The basic
idea is that some cells of the visual system are excited by one of the
opponent colors and inhibited by the other. So, a cell that was excited
by wavelengths associated with green would be inhibited by wavelengths
associated with red, and vice versa. One of the implications of opponent
processing is that we do not experience greenish-reds or yellowish-blues
as colors. Another implication is that this leads to the experience of
negative afterimages. An afterimage{: data-type=“term”} describes
the continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus.
For example, when you stare briefly at the sun and then look away from
it, you may still perceive a spot of light although the stimulus (the
sun) has been removed. When color is involved in the stimulus, the color
pairings identified in the opponent-process theory lead to a negative
afterimage. You can test this concept using the flag in
[link].
{:
#Figure_05_03_Afterimage}
But these two theories—the trichromatic theory of color vision and the
opponent-process theory—are not mutually exclusive. Research has shown
that they just apply to different levels of the nervous system. For
visual processing on the retina, trichromatic theory applies: the cones
are responsive to three different wavelengths that represent red, blue,
and green. But once the signal moves past the retina on its way to the
brain, the cells respond in a way consistent with opponent-process
theory (Land, 1959; Kaiser, 1997).
See also
Watch this video to
learn about color vision in more detail.
Our ability to perceive spatial relationships in three-dimensional (3-D)
space is known as depth perception{: data-type=“term”}. With depth
perception, we can describe things as being in front, behind, above,
below, or to the side of other things.
Our world is three-dimensional, so it makes sense that our mental
representation of the world has three-dimensional properties. We use a
variety of cues in a visual scene to establish our sense of depth. Some
of these are binocular{: data-type=“term”} cues{:
data-type=“term”}, which means that they rely on the use of both eyes.
One example of a binocular depth cue is binocular disparity{:
data-type=“term”}, the slightly different view of the world that each of
our eyes receives. To experience this slightly different view, do this
simple exercise: extend your arm fully and extend one of your fingers
and focus on that finger. Now, close your left eye without moving your
head, then open your left eye and close your right eye without moving
your head. You will notice that your finger seems to shift as you
alternate between the two eyes because of the slightly different view
each eye has of your finger.
A 3-D movie works on the same principle: the special glasses you wear
allow the two slightly different images projected onto the screen to be
seen separately by your left and your right eye. As your brain processes
these images, you have the illusion that the leaping animal or running
person is coming right toward you.
Although we rely on binocular cues to experience depth in our 3-D world,
we can also perceive depth in 2-D arrays. Think about all the paintings
and photographs you have seen. Generally, you pick up on depth in these
images even though the visual stimulus is 2-D. When we do this, we are
relying on a number of monocular cues{: data-type=“term”}, or cues
that require only one eye. If you think you can’t see depth with one
eye, note that you don’t bump into things when using only one eye while
walking—and, in fact, we have more monocular cues than binocular cues.
An example of a monocular cue would be what is known as linear
perspective. Linear perspective{: data-type=“term”} refers to the
fact that we perceive depth when we see two parallel lines that seem to
converge in an image ([link]). Some other
monocular depth cues are interposition, the partial overlap of objects,
and the relative size and closeness of images to the horizon.
{: #Figure_05_03_LinPerspec}
Stereoblindness
Bruce Bridgeman was born with an extreme case of lazy eye that
resulted in him being stereoblind, or unable to respond to binocular
cues of depth. He relied heavily on monocular depth cues, but he
never had a true appreciation of the 3-D nature of the world around
him. This all changed one night in 2012 while Bruce was seeing a
movie with his wife.
The movie the couple was going to see was shot in 3-D, and even
though he thought it was a waste of money, Bruce paid for the 3-D
glasses when he purchased his ticket. As soon as the film began,
Bruce put on the glasses and experienced something completely new.
For the first time in his life he appreciated the true depth of the
world around him. Remarkably, his ability to perceive depth persisted
outside of the movie theater.
There are cells in the nervous system that respond to binocular depth
cues. Normally, these cells require activation during early
development in order to persist, so experts familiar with Bruce’s
case (and others like his) assume that at some point in his
development, Bruce must have experienced at least a fleeting moment
of binocular vision. It was enough to ensure the survival of the
cells in the visual system tuned to binocular cues. The mystery now
is why it took Bruce nearly 70 years to have these cells activated
(Peck, 2012).
Light waves cross the cornea and enter the eye at the pupil. The eye’s
lens focuses this light so that the image is focused on a region of the
retina known as the fovea. The fovea contains cones that possess high
levels of visual acuity and operate best in bright light conditions.
Rods are located throughout the retina and operate best under dim light
conditions. Visual information leaves the eye via the optic nerve.
Information from each visual field is sent to the opposite side of the
brain at the optic chiasm. Visual information then moves through a
number of brain sites before reaching the occipital lobe, where it is
processed.
Two theories explain color perception. The trichromatic theory asserts
that three distinct cone groups are tuned to slightly different
wavelengths of light, and it is the combination of activity across these
cone types that results in our perception of all the colors we see. The
opponent-process theory of color vision asserts that color is processed
in opponent pairs and accounts for the interesting phenomenon of a
negative afterimage. We perceive depth through a combination of
monocular and binocular depth cues.
Question
The ________ is a small indentation of the retina that contains
cones.
optic chiasm
optic nerve
fovea
iris {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
________ operate best under bright light conditions.
cones
rods
retinal ganglion cells
striate cortex {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
________ depth cues require the use of both eyes.
monocular
binocular
linear perspective
accommodating {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
If you were to stare at a green dot for a relatively long period
of time and then shift your gaze to a blank white screen, you
would see a ________ negative afterimage.
Compare the two theories of color perception. Are they completely
different?
The trichromatic theory of color vision and the opponent-process
theory are not mutually exclusive. Research has shown they apply
to different levels of the nervous system. For visual processing
on the retina, trichromatic theory applies: the cones are
responsive to three different wavelengths that represent red,
blue, and green. But once the signal moves past the retina on its
way to the brain, the cells respond in a way consistent with
opponent-process theory.
Color is not a physical property of our environment. What function
(if any) do you think color vision serves?
Color vision probably serves multiple adaptive purposes. One
popular hypothesis suggests that seeing in color allowed our
ancestors to differentiate ripened fruits and vegetables more
easily.
X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain’s ventral
surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two
eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the
visual field to the opposite side of the brain ^
color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups
of cones
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
basic anatomy and function of the auditory system * Explain how we
encode and perceive pitch * Discuss how we localize sound
Our auditory system converts pressure waves into meaningful sounds. This
translates into our ability to hear the sounds of nature, to appreciate
the beauty of music, and to communicate with one another through spoken
language. This section will provide an overview of the basic anatomy and
function of the auditory system. It will include a discussion of how the
sensory stimulus is translated into neural impulses, where in the brain
that information is processed, how we perceive pitch, and how we know
where sound is coming from.
The ear can be separated into multiple sections. The outer ear includes
the pinna{: data-type=“term”}, which is the visible part of the
ear that protrudes from our heads, the auditory canal, and the
tympanic membrane{: data-type=“term”}, or eardrum. The middle ear
contains three tiny bones known as the ossicles{:
data-type=“term”}, which are named the malleus{: data-type=“term”}
(or hammer), incus{: data-type=“term”} (or anvil), and the
stapes{: data-type=“term”} (or stirrup). The inner ear contains
the semi-circular canals, which are involved in balance and movement
(the vestibular sense), and the cochlea. The cochlea{:
data-type=“term”} is a fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure that
contains the sensory receptor cells (hair cells) of the auditory system
([link]).
{:
#Figure_05_04_Ear}
Sound waves travel along the auditory canal and strike the tympanic
membrane, causing it to vibrate. This vibration results in movement of
the three ossicles. As the ossicles move, the stapes presses into a thin
membrane of the cochlea known as the oval window. As the stapes presses
into the oval window, the fluid inside the cochlea begins to move, which
in turn stimulates hair cells{: data-type=“term”}, which are
auditory receptor cells of the inner ear embedded in the basilar
membrane. The basilar membrane{: data-type=“term”} is a thin strip
of tissue within the cochlea.
The activation of hair cells is a mechanical process: the stimulation of
the hair cell ultimately leads to activation of the cell. As hair cells
become activated, they generate neural impulses that travel along the
auditory nerve to the brain. Auditory information is shuttled to the
inferior colliculus, the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, and
finally to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe of the brain for
processing. Like the visual system, there is also evidence suggesting
that information about auditory recognition and localization is
processed in parallel streams (Rauschecker & Tian, 2000; Renier et al.,
2009).
Different frequencies of sound waves are associated with differences in
our perception of the pitch of those sounds. Low-frequency sounds are
lower pitched, and high-frequency sounds are higher pitched. How does
the auditory system differentiate among various pitches?
Several theories have been proposed to account for pitch perception.
We’ll discuss two of them here: temporal theory and place theory. The
temporal theory{: data-type=“term”} of pitch perception asserts
that frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron. This
would mean that a given hair cell would fire action potentials related
to the frequency of the sound wave. While this is a very intuitive
explanation, we detect such a broad range of frequencies (20–20,000 Hz)
that the frequency of action potentials fired by hair cells cannot
account for the entire range. Because of properties related to sodium
channels on the neuronal membrane that are involved in action
potentials, there is a point at which a cell cannot fire any faster
(Shamma, 2001).
The place theory{: data-type=“term”} of pitch perception suggests
that different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds
of different frequencies. More specifically, the base of the basilar
membrane responds best to high frequencies and the tip of the basilar
membrane responds best to low frequencies. Therefore, hair cells that
are in the base portion would be labeled as high-pitch receptors, while
those in the tip of basilar membrane would be labeled as low-pitch
receptors (Shamma, 2001).
In reality, both theories explain different aspects of pitch perception.
At frequencies up to about 4000 Hz, it is clear that both the rate of
action potentials and place contribute to our perception of pitch.
However, much higher frequency sounds can only be encoded using place
cues (Shamma, 2001).
The ability to locate sound in our environments is an important part of
hearingpastehere. Localizing sound could
be considered similar to the way that we perceive depth in our visual
fields. Like the monocular and binocular cues that provided information
about depth, the auditory system uses both monaural{:
data-type=“term”} (one-eared) and binaural{: data-type=“term”}
(two-eared) cues to localize sound.
Each pinna interacts with incoming sound waves differently, depending on
the sound’s source relative to our bodies. This interaction provides a
monaural cue that is helpful in locating sounds that occur above or
below and in front or behind us. The sound waves received by your two
ears from sounds that come from directly above, below, in front, or
behind you would be identical; therefore, monaural cues are essential
(Grothe, Pecka, & McAlpine, 2010).
Binaural cues, on the other hand, provide information on the location of
a sound along a horizontal axis by relying on differences in patterns of
vibration of the eardrum between our two ears. If a sound comes from an
off-center location, it creates two types of binaural cues: interaural
level differences and interaural timing differences. Interaural level
difference{: data-type=“term”} refers to the fact that a sound
coming from the right side of your body is more intense at your right
ear than at your left ear because of the attenuation of the sound wave
as it passes through your head. Interaural timing difference{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the small difference in the time at which a
given sound wave arrives at each ear
([link]). Certain brain areas monitor these
differences to construct where along a horizontal axis a sound
originates (Grothe et al., 2010).
Deafness{: data-type=“term”} is the partial or complete inability
to hear. Some people are born deaf, which is known as congenital
deafness{: data-type=“term”}. Many others begin to suffer from
conductive hearing loss{: data-type=“term”} because of age,
genetic predisposition, or environmental effects, including exposure to
extreme noise (noise-induced hearing loss, as shown in
[link]), certain illnesses (such as
measles or mumps), or damage due to toxins (such as those found in
certain solvents and metals).
{: #Figure_05_04_EnFactors}
Given the mechanical nature by which the sound wave stimulus is
transmitted from the eardrum through the ossicles to the oval window of
the cochlea, some degree of hearing loss is inevitable. With conductive
hearing loss, hearing problems are associated with a failure in the
vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles. These problems
are often dealt with through devices like hearing aids that amplify
incoming sound waves to make vibration of the eardrum and movement of
the ossicles more likely to occur.
When the hearing problem is associated with a failure to transmit neural
signals from the cochlea to the brain, it is called sensorineural
hearing loss{: data-type=“term”}. One disease that results in
sensorineural hearing loss is Ménière’s disease{:
data-type=“term”}. Although not well understood, Ménière’s disease
results in a degeneration of inner ear structures that can lead to
hearing loss, tinnitus (constant ringing or buzzing), vertigo{:
data-type=“term”} (a sense of spinning), and an increase in pressure
within the inner ear (Semaan & Megerian, 2011). This kind of loss cannot
be treated with hearing aids, but some individuals might be candidates
for a cochlear implant as a treatment option. Cochlear implants{:
data-type=“term”} are electronic devices that consist of a microphone, a
speech processor, and an electrode array. The device receives incoming
sound information and directly stimulates the auditory nerve to transmit
information to the brain.
See also
Watch this video
describe cochlear implant surgeries and how they work.
See also
Deaf Culture
In the United States and other places around the world, deaf people
have their own language, schools, and customs. This is called deaf
culturepastehere. In the United States,
deaf individuals often communicate using American Sign Language
(ASL); ASL has no verbal component and is based entirely on visual
signs and gestures. The primary mode of communication is signing. One
of the values of deaf culture is to continue traditions like using
sign language rather than teaching deaf children to try to speak,
read lips, or have cochlear implant surgery.
When a child is diagnosed as deaf, parents have difficult decisions
to make. Should the child be enrolled in mainstream schools and
taught to verbalize and read lips? Or should the child be sent to a
school for deaf children to learn ASL and have significant exposure
to deaf culture? Do you think there might be differences in the way
that parents approach these decisions depending on whether or not
they are also deaf?
Sound waves are funneled into the auditory canal and cause vibrations of
the eardrum; these vibrations move the ossicles. As the ossicles move,
the stapes presses against the oval window of the cochlea, which causes
fluid inside the cochlea to move. As a result, hair cells embedded in
the basilar membrane become enlarged, which sends neural impulses to the
brain via the auditory nerve.
Pitch perception and sound localization are important aspects of
hearing. Our ability to perceive pitch relies on both the firing rate of
the hair cells in the basilar membrane as well as their location within
the membrane. In terms of sound localization, both monaural and binaural
cues are used to locate where sounds originate in our environment.
Individuals can be born deaf, or they can develop deafness as a result
of age, genetic predisposition, and/or environmental causes. Hearing
loss that results from a failure of the vibration of the eardrum or the
resultant movement of the ossicles is called conductive hearing loss.
Hearing loss that involves a failure of the transmission of auditory
nerve impulses to the brain is called sensorineural hearing loss.
Question
Hair cells located near the base of the basilar membrane respond
best to ________ sounds.
low-frequency
high-frequency
low-amplitude
high-amplitude {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The three ossicles of the middle ear are known as ________.
malleus, incus, and stapes
hammer, anvil, and stirrup
pinna, cochlea, and utricle
both a and b {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Hearing aids might be effective for treating ________.
Ménière’s disease
sensorineural hearing loss
conductive hearing loss
interaural time differences {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Cues that require two ears are referred to as ________ cues.
Given what you’ve read about sound localization, from an
evolutionary perspective, how does sound localization facilitate
survival?
Sound localization would have allowed early humans to locate prey
and protect themselves from predators.
How can temporal and place theories both be used to explain our
ability to perceive the pitch of sound waves with frequencies up
to 4000 Hz?
Pitch of sounds below this threshold could be encoded by the
combination of the place and firing rate of stimulated hair cells.
So, in general, hair cells located near the tip of the basilar
membrane would signal that we’re dealing with a lower-pitched
sound. However, differences in firing rates of hair cells within
this location could allow for fine discrimination between low-,
medium-, and high-pitch sounds within the larger low-pitch
context.
electronic device that consists of a microphone, a speech
processor, and an electrode array to directly stimulate the
auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain ^
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
basic functions of the chemical senses * Explain the basic functions
of the somatosensory, nociceptive, and thermoceptive sensory systems
* Describe the basic functions of the vestibular, proprioceptive,
and kinesthetic sensory systems
Vision and hearing have received an incredible amount of attention from
researchers over the years. While there is still much to be learned
about how these sensory systems work, we have a much better
understanding of them than of our other sensory modalities. In this
section, we will explore our chemical senses (taste and smell) and our
body senses (touch, temperature, pain, balance, and body position).
Taste (gustation) and smellpastehere
(olfaction) are called chemical senses because both have sensory
receptors that respond to molecules in the food we eat or in the air we
breathe. There is a pronounced interaction between our chemical senses.
For example, when we describe the flavor of a given food, we are really
referring to both gustatory and olfactory properties of the food working
in combination.
You have learned since elementary school that there are four basic
groupings of taste: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. Research
demonstrates, however, that we have at least six taste{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} groupings. Umami is our fifth taste.
Umami{: data-type=“term”} is actually a Japanese word that roughly
translates to yummy, and it is associated with a taste for monosodium
glutamate (Kinnamon & Vandenbeuch, 2009). There is also a growing body
of experimental evidence suggesting that we possess a taste for the
fatty content of a given food (Mizushige, Inoue, & Fushiki, 2007).
Molecules from the food and beverages we consume dissolve in our saliva
and interact with taste receptors on our tongue and in our mouth and
throat. Taste buds{: data-type=“term”} are formed by groupings of
taste receptor cells with hair-like extensions that protrude into the
central pore of the taste bud ([link]).
Taste buds have a life cycle of ten days to two weeks, so even
destroying some by burning your tongue won’t have any long-term effect;
they just grow right back. Taste molecules bind to receptors on this
extension and cause chemical changes within the sensory cell that result
in neural impulses being transmitted to the brain via different nerves,
depending on where the receptor is located. Taste information is
transmitted to the medulla, thalamus, and limbic system, and to the
gustatory cortex, which is tucked underneath the overlap between the
frontal and temporal lobes (Maffei, Haley, & Fontanini, 2012; Roper,
2013).
Olfactory receptor{: data-type=“term”} cells are located in a
mucous membrane at the top of the nose. Small hair-like extensions from
these receptors serve as the sites for odor molecules dissolved in the
mucus to interact with chemical receptors located on these extensions
([link]). Once an odor molecule has bound
a given receptor, chemical changes within the cell result in signals
being sent to the olfactory bulb{: data-type=“term”}: a bulb-like
structure at the tip of the frontal lobe where the olfactory nerves
begin. From the olfactory bulb, information is sent to regions of the
limbic system and to the primary olfactory cortex, which is located very
near the gustatory cortex (Lodovichi & Belluscio, 2012; Spors et al.,
2013).
{:
#Figure_05_05_OlfacRecep}
There is tremendous variation in the sensitivity of the olfactory
systems of different species. We often think of dogs as having far
superior olfactory systems than our own, and indeed, dogs can do some
remarkable things with their noses. There is some evidence to suggest
that dogs can “smell” dangerous drops in blood glucose levels as well as
cancerous tumors (Wells, 2010). Dogs’ extraordinary olfactory abilities
may be due to the increased number of functional genes for olfactory
receptors (between 800 and 1200), compared to the fewer than 400
observed in humans and other primates (Niimura & Nei, 2007).
Many species respond to chemical messages, known as pheromones{:
data-type=“term”}, sent by another individual (Wysocki & Preti, 2004).
Pheromonal communication often involves providing information about the
reproductive status of a potential mate. So, for example, when a female
rat is ready to mate, she secretes pheromonal signals that draw
attention from nearby male rats. Pheromonal activation is actually an
important component in eliciting sexual behavior in the male rat
(Furlow, 1996, 2012; Purvis & Haynes, 1972; Sachs, 1997). There has also
been a good deal of research (and controversy) about pheromones in
humans (Comfort, 1971; Russell, 1976; Wolfgang-Kimball, 1992; Weller,
1998).
A number of receptors are distributed throughout the skin to respond to
various touch-related stimuli ([link]). These
receptors include Meissner’s corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles, Merkel’s
disks, and Ruffini corpuscles. Meissner’s corpuscles{:
data-type=“term”} respond to pressure and lower frequency vibrations,
and Pacinian corpuscles{: data-type=“term”} detect transient
pressure and higher frequency vibrations. Merkel’s disks{:
data-type=“term”} respond to light pressure, while Ruffini
corpuscles{: data-type=“term”} detect stretch (Abraira & Ginty,
2013).
{: #Figure_05_05_Touch}
In addition to the receptors located in the skin, there are also a
number of free nerve endings that serve sensory functions. These nerve
endings respond to a variety of different types of touch-related stimuli
and serve as sensory receptors for both thermoception{:
data-type=“term”} (temperature perception) and nociception{:
data-type=“term”} (a signal indicating potential harm and maybe pain)
(Garland, 2012; Petho & Reeh, 2012; Spray, 1986). Sensory information
collected from the receptors and free nerve endings travels up the
spinal cord and is transmitted to regions of the medulla, thalamus, and
ultimately to somatosensory cortex, which is located in the postcentral
gyrus of the parietal lobe.
Pain is an unpleasant experience that involves both physical and
psychological components. Feeling pain is quite adaptive because it
makes us aware of an injury, and it motivates us to remove ourselves
from the cause of that injury. In addition, pain also makes us less
likely to suffer additional injury because we will be gentler with our
injured body parts.
Generally speaking, pain can be considered to be neuropathic or
inflammatory in nature. Pain that signals some type of tissue damage is
known as inflammatory pain{: data-type=“term”}. In some
situations, pain results from damage to neurons of either the peripheral
or central nervous system. As a result, pain signals that are sent to
the brain get exaggerated. This type of pain is known as neuropathic
pain{: data-type=“term”}. Multiple treatment options for pain relief
range from relaxation therapy to the use of analgesic medications to
deep brain stimulation. The most effective treatment option for a given
individual will depend on a number of considerations, including the
severity and persistence of the pain and any medical/psychological
conditions.
Some individuals are born without the ability to feel pain. This very
rare genetic disorder is known as congenital insensitivity to pain (or
congenital analgesia{: data-type=“term”}). While those with
congenital analgesia can detect differences in temperature and pressure,
they cannot experience pain. As a result, they often suffer significant
injuries. Young children have serious mouth and tongue injuries because
they have bitten themselves repeatedly. Not surprisingly, individuals
suffering from this disorder have much shorter life expectancies due to
their injuries and secondary infections of injured sites (U.S. National
Library of Medicine, 2013).
See also
Watch this video to learn more
about congenital insensitivity to pain.
The vestibular sense{: data-type=“term”} contributes to our
ability to maintain balance and body posture. As
[link] shows, the major sensory organs
(utricle, saccule, and the three semicircular canals) of this system are
located next to the cochlea in the inner ear. The vestibular organs are
fluid-filled and have hair cells, similar to the ones found in the
auditory system, which respond to movement of the head and gravitational
forces. When these hair cells are stimulated, they send signals to the
brain via the vestibular nerve. Although we may not be consciously aware
of our vestibular system’s sensory information under normal
circumstances, its importance is apparent when we experience motion
sickness and/or dizziness related to infections of the inner ear (Khan &
Chang, 2013).
{:
#Figure_05_05_Vestibular}
In addition to maintaining balance, the vestibular system collects
information critical for controlling movement and the reflexes that move
various parts of our bodies to compensate for changes in body position.
Therefore, both proprioception (perception of body position) and
kinesthesia (perception of the body’s movement through space) interact
with information provided by the vestibular system.
These sensory systems also gather information from receptors that
respond to stretch and tension in muscles, joints, skin, and tendons
(Lackner & DiZio, 2005; Proske, 2006; Proske & Gandevia, 2012).
Proprioceptive and kinesthetic information travels to the brain via the
spinal column. Several cortical regions in addition to the cerebellum
receive information from and send information to the sensory organs of
the proprioceptive and kinesthetic systems.
Taste (gustation) and smell (olfaction) are chemical senses that employ
receptors on the tongue and in the nose that bind directly with taste
and odor molecules in order to transmit information to the brain for
processing. Our ability to perceive touch, temperature, and pain is
mediated by a number of receptors and free nerve endings that are
distributed throughout the skin and various tissues of the body. The
vestibular sense helps us maintain a sense of balance through the
response of hair cells in the utricle, saccule, and semi-circular canals
that respond to changes in head position and gravity. Our proprioceptive
and kinesthetic systems provide information about body position and body
movement through receptors that detect stretch and tension in the
muscles, joints, tendons, and skin of the body.
Question
Chemical messages often sent between two members of a species to
communicate something about reproductive status are called
________.
hormones
pheromones
Merkel’s disks
Meissner’s corpuscles {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which taste is associated with monosodium glutamate?
sweet
bitter
umami
sour {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
________ serve as sensory receptors for temperature and pain
stimuli.
free nerve endings
Pacinian corpuscles
Ruffini corpuscles
Meissner’s corpuscles {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Which of the following is involved in maintaining balance and body
posture?
Many people experience nausea while traveling in a car, plane, or
boat. How might you explain this as a function of sensory
interaction?
When traveling by car, we often have visual information that
suggests that we are in motion while our vestibular sense
indicates that we’re not moving (assuming we’re traveling at a
relatively constant speed). Normally, these two sensory modalities
provide congruent information, but the discrepancy might lead to
confusion and nausea. The converse would be true when traveling by
plane or boat.
If you heard someone say that they would do anything not to feel
the pain associated with significant injury, how would you respond
given what you’ve just read?
Pain serves important functions that are critical to our survival.
As noxious as pain stimuli may be, the experiences of individuals
who suffer from congenital insensitivity to pain makes the
consequences of a lack of pain all too apparent.
Do you think women experience pain differently than men? Why do
you think this is?
Research has shown that women and men do differ in their
experience of and tolerance for pain: Women tend to handle pain
better than men. Perhaps this is due to women’s labor and
childbirth experience. Men tend to be stoic about their pain and
do not seek help. Research also shows that gender differences in
pain tolerance can vary across cultures.
As mentioned earlier, a food’s flavor represents an interaction of
both gustatory and olfactory information. Think about the last
time you were seriously congested due to a cold or the flu. What
changes did you notice in the flavors of the foods that you ate
during this time?
congenital insensitivity to pain (congenital analgesia)
genetic disorder that results in the inability to experience pain
^
contributes to our ability to maintain balance and body posture
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the
figure-ground relationship * Define Gestalt principles of grouping
* Describe how perceptual set is influenced by an individual’s
characteristics and mental state
In the early part of the 20th century, Max Wertheimer published a paper
demonstrating that individuals perceived motion in rapidly flickering
static images—an insight that came to him as he used a child’s toy
tachistoscope. Wertheimer, and his assistants Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt
Koffka, who later became his partners, believed that perception involved
more than simply combining sensory stimuli. This belief led to a new
movement within the field of psychology known as Gestalt
psychology{: data-type=“term”}. The word gestalt literally means
form or pattern, but its use reflects the idea that the whole is
different from the sum of its parts. In other words, the brain creates a
perception that is more than simply the sum of available sensory inputs,
and it does so in predictable ways. Gestalt psychologists translated
these predictable ways into principles by which we organize sensory
information. As a result, Gestalt psychology has been extremely
influential in the area of sensation and perception (Rock & Palmer,
1990).
One Gestalt principle is the figure-ground relationship{:
data-type=“term”}. According to this principle, we tend to segment our
visual world into figure and ground. Figure is the object or person that
is the focus of the visual field, while the ground is the background. As
[link] shows, our perception can vary
tremendously, depending on what is perceived as figure and what is
perceived as ground. Presumably, our ability to interpret sensory
information depends on what we label as figure and what we label as
ground in any particular case, although this assumption has been called
into question (Peterson & Gibson, 1994; Vecera & O’Reilly, 1998).
{: #Figure_05_06_FacesVase}
Another Gestalt principle for organizing sensory stimuli into meaningful
perception is proximity{: data-type=“term”}. This principle
asserts that things that are close to one another tend to be grouped
together, as [link] illustrates.
{:
#Figure_05_06_Proximity}
How we read something provides another illustration of the proximity
concept. For example, we read this sentence like this, notl iket hiso rt
hat. We group the letters of a given word together because there are no
spaces between the letters, and we perceive words because there are
spaces between each word. Here are some more examples: Cany oum akes
enseo ft hiss entence? What doth es e wor dsmea n?
We might also use the principle of similarity{: data-type=“term”}
to group things in our visual fields. According to this principle,
things that are alike tend to be grouped together
([link]). For example, when watching a
football game, we tend to group individuals based on the colors of their
uniforms. When watching an offensive drive, we can get a sense of the
two teams simply by grouping along this dimension.
{:
#Figure_05_06_Similarity}
Two additional Gestalt principles are the law of continuity (or good
continuation{: data-type=“term”}) and closure{:
data-type=“term”}. The law of continuity suggests that we are more
likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged,
broken lines ([link]). The principle of
closure{: data-type=“term”} states that we organize our perceptions
into complete objects rather than as a series of parts
([link]).
{: #Figure_05_06_Continuity}
{: #Figure_05_06_Closure}
See also
Watch this video showing real
world illustrations of Gestalt principles.
According to Gestalt theorists, pattern perception{:
data-type=“term”}, or our ability to discriminate among different
figures and shapes, occurs by following the principles described above.
You probably feel fairly certain that your perception accurately matches
the real world, but this is not always the case. Our perceptions are
based on perceptual hypotheses{: data-type=“term”}: educated
guesses that we make while interpreting sensory information. These
hypotheses are informed by a number of factors, including our
personalities, experiences, and expectations. We use these hypotheses to
generate our perceptual set. For instance, research has demonstrated
that those who are given verbal priming produce a biased interpretation
of complex ambiguous figures (Goolkasian & Woodbury, 2010).
Tip
The Depths of Perception: Bias, Prejudice, and Cultural Factors
In this chapter, you have learned that perception is a complex
process. Built from sensations, but influenced by our own
experiences, biases, prejudices, and cultures{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}, perceptions can be very different
from person to person. Research suggests that implicit racial
prejudicepastehere and
stereotypespastehere affect perception.
For instance, several studies have demonstrated that non-Black
participants identify weapons faster and are more likely to identify
non-weapons as weapons when the image of the weapon is paired with
the image of a Black person (Payne, 2001; Payne, Shimizu, & Jacoby,
2005). Furthermore, White individuals’ decisions to shoot an armed
target in a video game is made more quickly when the target is Black
(Correll, Park, Judd, & Wittenbrink, 2002; Correll, Urland, & Ito,
2006). This research is important, considering the number of very
high-profile cases in the last few decades in which young Blacks were
killed by people who claimed to believe that the unarmed individuals
were armed and/or represented some threat to their personal safety.
Gestalt theorists have been incredibly influential in the areas of
sensation and perception. Gestalt principles such as figure-ground
relationship, grouping by proximity or similarity, the law of good
continuation, and closure are all used to help explain how we organize
sensory information. Our perceptions are not infallible, and they can be
influenced by bias, prejudice, and other factors.
Question
According to the principle of ________, objects that occur close
to one another tend to be grouped together.
similarity
good continuation
proximity
closure {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Our tendency to perceive things as complete objects rather than as
a series of parts is known as the principle of ________.
closure
good continuation
proximity
similarity {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
According to the law of ________, we are more likely to perceive
smoothly flowing lines rather than choppy or jagged lines.
closure
good continuation
proximity
similarity {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The main point of focus in a visual display is known as the
________.
The central tenet of Gestalt psychology is that the whole is
different from the sum of its parts. What does this mean in the
context of perception?
This means that perception cannot be understood completely simply
by combining the parts. Rather, the relationship that exists among
those parts (which would be established according to the
principles described in this chapter) is important in organizing
and interpreting sensory information into a perceptual set.
Take a look at the following figure. How might you influence
whether people see a duck or a rabbit?
{: #Figure_05_06_DuckRabbit}
Playing on their expectations could be used to influence what they
were most likely to see. For instance, telling a story about Peter
Rabbit and then presenting this image would bias perception along
rabbit lines.
Have you ever listened to a song on the radio and sung along only
to find out later that you have been singing the wrong lyrics?
Once you found the correct lyrics, did your perception of the song
change?
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Official RCPsych Syllabus for the MRCPsych Paper A
Learning theory: classical, operant, observational and cognitive models.
The concepts of extinction and reinforcement.
Learning processes and aetiological formulation of clinical problems, including the concepts of
- generalisation,
- secondary reinforcement,
- incubation and
- stimulus preparedness.
The summer sun shines brightly on a deserted stretch of beach. Suddenly,
a tiny grey head emerges from the sand, then another and another. Soon
the beach is teeming with loggerhead sea turtle hatchlings
([link]). Although only minutes old, the
hatchlings know exactly what to do. Their flippers are not very
efficient for moving across the hot sand, yet they continue onward,
instinctively. Some are quickly snapped up by gulls circling overhead
and others become lunch for hungry ghost crabs that dart out of their
holes. Despite these dangers, the hatchlings are driven to leave the
safety of their nest and find the ocean.
Not far down this same beach, Ben and his son, Julian, paddle out into
the ocean on surfboards. A wave approaches. Julian crouches on his
board, then jumps up and rides the wave for a few seconds before losing
his balance. He emerges from the water in time to watch his father ride
the face of the wave.
Unlike baby sea turtles, which know how to find the ocean and swim with
no help from their parents, we are not born knowing how to swim (or
surf). Yet we humans pride ourselves on our ability to learn. In fact,
over thousands of years and across cultures, we have created
institutions devoted entirely to learning. But have you ever asked
yourself how exactly it is that we learn? What processes are at work as
we come to know what we know? This chapter focuses on the primary ways
in which learning occurs.
Explain how learned behaviours are different from instincts and reflexes
Define learning
Recognize and define three basic forms of learning—classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning
Birds build nests and migrate as winter approaches. Infants suckle at
their mother’s breast. Dogs shake water off wet fur. Salmon swim
upstream to spawn, and spiders spin intricate webs. What do these
seemingly unrelated behaviours have in common? They all are unlearned
behaviours. Both instincts and reflexes are innate behaviours that
organisms are born with. Reflexes are a motor
or neural reaction to a specific stimulus in the environment. They tend
to be simpler than instincts, involve the activity of specific body
parts and systems (e.g., the knee-jerk reflex and the contraction of the
pupil in bright light), and involve more primitive centers of the
central nervous system (e.g., the spinal cord and the medulla).
In
contrast, instincts are innate behaviours that
are triggered by a broader range of events, such as ageing and the change
of seasons. They are more complex patterns of behaviour, involve movement
of the organism as a whole (e.g., sexual activity and migration), and
involve higher brain centers.
Both reflexes and instincts help an organism adapt to its environment
and do not have to be learned. For example, every healthy human baby has
a sucking reflex, present at birth. Babies are born knowing how to suck
on a nipple, whether artificial (from a bottle) or human. Nobody teaches
the baby to suck, just as no one teaches a sea turtle hatchling to move
toward the ocean. Learning, like reflexes and instincts, allows an
organism to adapt to its environment. But unlike instincts and reflexes,
learned behaviours involve change and experience: learning is
a relatively permanent change in behaviour or
knowledge that results from experience. In contrast to the innate
behaviours discussed above, learning involves acquiring knowledge and
skills through experience. Looking back at our surfing scenario, Julian
will have to spend much more time training with his surfboard before he
learns how to ride the waves like his father.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behaviour or
knowledge that results from experience.
Learning to surf, as well as any complex learning process (e.g.,
learning about the discipline of psychology), involves a complex
interaction of conscious and unconscious processes. Learning has
traditionally been studied in terms of its simplest components—the
associations our minds automatically make between events. Our minds have
a natural tendency to connect events that occur closely together or in
sequence. associative learning occurs when an
organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together
in the environment. You will see that associative learning is central to
all three basic learning processes discussed in this chapter; classical
conditioning tends to involve unconscious processes, operant
conditioning tends to involve conscious processes, and observational
learning adds social and cognitive layers to all the basic associative
processes, both conscious and unconscious. These learning processes will
be discussed in detail later in the chapter, but it is helpful to have a
brief overview of each as you begin to explore how learning is
understood from a psychological perspective.
In classical conditioning, also known as Pavlovian conditioning,
organisms learn to associate events—or stimuli—that repeatedly happen
together. We experience this process throughout our daily lives. For
example, you might see a flash of lightning in the sky during a storm
and then hear a loud boom of thunder. The sound of the thunder naturally
makes you jump (loud noises have that effect by reflex). Because
lightning reliably predicts the impending boom of thunder, you may
associate the two and jump when you see lightning. Behavioural
researchers study this associative process by focusing on what can be
seen and measured: behaviours. Researchers ask if one stimulus triggers a
reflex, can we train a different stimulus to trigger that same reflex?
In operant conditioning, organisms learn, again, to associate events—a
behaviour and its consequence (reinforcement or punishment). A pleasant
consequence encourages more of that behaviour in the future, whereas a
punishment deters the behaviour. Imagine you are teaching your dog,
Hodor, to sit. You tell Hodor to sit, and give him a treat when he does.
After repeated experiences, Hodor begins to associate the act of sitting
with receiving a treat. He learns that the consequence of sitting is
that he gets a doggie biscuit ([link]).
Conversely, if the dog is punished when exhibiting a behaviour, it
becomes conditioned to avoid that behaviour (e.g., receiving a small
shock when crossing the boundary of an invisible electric fence).
A photograph shows a dog standing at attention and smelling a treat in a person’s hand.
Observational learning extends the effective range of both classical and
operant conditioning. In contrast to classical and operant conditioning,
in which learning occurs only through direct experience, observational
learning is the process of watching others and then imitating what they
do. A lot of learning among humans and other animals comes from
observational learning. To get an idea of the extra effective range that
observational learning brings, consider Ben and his son Julian from the
introduction. How might observation help Julian learn to surf, as
opposed to learning by trial and error alone? By watching his father, he
can imitate the moves that bring success and avoid the moves that lead
to failure. Can you think of something you have learned how to do after
watching someone else?
All of the approaches covered in this chapter are part of a particular
tradition in psychology, called behaviourism, which we discuss in the
next section. However, these approaches do not represent the entire
study of learning. Separate traditions of learning have taken shape
within different fields of psychology, such as memory and cognition, so
you will find that other chapters will round out your understanding of
the topic. Over time these traditions tend to converge. For example, in
this chapter you will see how cognition has come to play a larger role
in behaviourism, whose more extreme adherents once insisted that
behaviours are triggered by the environment with no intervening thought.
Non-associative learning involves only one stimulus; habituation and
sensitization are examples.
In the former, there is a decrease in the response to an innocous stimulus.
In the later, the response tendency
increases.
Cognition involves mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem-solving, and remembering
According to cognitive theorists, these processes are critically important in a more complete,
more comprehensive view of learning.
Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviours—they occur naturally and do
not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behaviour or
knowledge that results from experience. There are three main types of
learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and
observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are
forms of associative learning where associations are made between events
that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds:
learning by observing others.
Question
Which of the following is an example of a reflex that occurs at
some point in the development of a human being?
child riding a bike
teen socializing
infant sucking on a nipple
toddler walking
Check Answer
C
Question
Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in
behaviour that ________.
is innate
occurs as a result of experience
is found only in humans
occurs by observing others
Check Answer
B
Question
Two forms of associative learning are ________ and ________.
classical conditioning; operant conditioning
classical conditioning; Pavlovian conditioning
operant conditioning; observational learning
operant conditioning; learning conditioning
Check Answer
A
Question
In ________ the stimulus or experience occurs before the
behaviour and then gets paired with the behaviour.
Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning. How are
they alike? How do they differ?
Both classical and operant conditioning involve learning by
association. In classical conditioning, responses are involuntary
and automatic; however, responses are voluntary and learned in
operant conditioning. In classical conditioning, the event that
drives the behaviour (the stimulus) comes before the behaviour; in
operant conditioning, the event that drives the behaviour (the
consequence) comes after the behaviour. Also, whereas classical
conditioning involves an organism forming an association between
an involuntary (reflexive) response and a stimulus, operant
conditioning involves an organism forming an association between a
voluntary behaviour and a consequence.
What is the difference between a reflex and a learned behaviour?
A reflex is a behaviour that humans are born knowing how to do,
such as sucking or blushing; these behaviours happen automatically
in response to stimuli in the environment. Learned behaviours are
things that humans are not born knowing how to do, such as
swimming and surfing. Learned behaviours are not automatic; they
occur as a result of practice or repeated experience in a
situation.
unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the
environment
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Summarize the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination
Does the name Ivan Pavlov ring a
bell? Even if you are new to the study of psychology, chances are that
you have heard of Pavlov and his famous dogs.
Pavlov (1849–1936), a Russian scientist, performed extensive research on
dogs and is best known for his experiments in classical
conditioning
([link]). As we discussed briefly in the
previous section, classical conditioning is a
process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to
anticipate events.
A portrait shows Ivan Pavlov; a Russian physiologist who
Pavlov came to his conclusions about how learning occurs completely by
accident. Pavlov was a physiologist, not a psychologist. Physiologists
study the life processes of organisms, from the molecular level to the
level of cells, organ systems, and entire organisms. Pavlov’s area of
interest was the digestive system (Hunt, 2007). In his studies with
dogs, Pavlov surgically implanted tubes inside dogs’ cheeks to collect
saliva. He then measured the amount of saliva produced in response to
various foods. Over time, Pavlov (1927) observed that the dogs began to
salivate not only at the taste of food, but also at the sight of food,
at the sight of an empty food bowl, and even at the sound of the
laboratory assistants’ footsteps. Salivating to food in the mouth is
reflexive, so no learning is involved. However, dogs don’t naturally
salivate at the sight of an empty bowl or the sound of footsteps.
Attention
Pavlov was a physiologist, not a psychologist.
These unusual responses intrigued Pavlov, and he wondered what accounted
for what he called the dogs’ psychic reflexes (Pavlov, 1927). To
explore this phenomenon in an objective manner, Pavlov designed a series
of carefully controlled experiments to see which stimuli would cause the
dogs to salivate. He was able to train the dogs to salivate in response
to stimuli that clearly had nothing to do with food, such as the sound
of a bell, a light, and a touch on the leg. Through his experiments,
Pavlov realized that an organism has two types of responses to its
environment: (1) unconditioned (unlearned) responses, or reflexes, and
(2) conditioned (learned) responses.
In Pavlov’s experiments, the dogs salivated each time meat powder was
presented to them. The meat powder in this situation was an
unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that
elicits a reflexive response in an organism. The dogs’ salivation was an
unconditioned response (UCR) a natural
(unlearned) reaction to a given stimulus. Before conditioning, think of
the dogs’ stimulus and response like this:
Meat powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus is presented immediately
before an unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov would sound a tone (like
ringing a bell) and then give the dogs the meat powder
([link]).
The tone was the neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus that does not
naturally elicit a response. Prior to conditioning, the dogs did not
salivate when they just heard the tone because the tone had no
association for the dogs. Quite simply this pairing means:
Tone (NS) + Meat Powder (UCS) → Salivation (UCR)
When Pavlov paired the tone with the meat powder over and over again,
the previously neutral stimulus (the tone) also began to elicit
salivation from the dogs. Thus, the neutral stimulus became the
conditioned stimulus (CS), which is a stimulus
that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an
unconditioned stimulus. Eventually, the dogs began to salivate to the
tone alone, just as they previously had salivated at the sound of the
assistants’ footsteps. The behaviour caused by the conditioned stimulus
is called the conditioned response (CR). In
the case of Pavlov’s dogs, they had learned to associate the tone (CS)
with being fed, and they began to salivate (CR) in anticipation of food.
Tone (CS) → Salivation (CR)
Two illustrations are labelled “before conditioning” and show a dog
salivating over a dish of food, and a dog not salivating while a bell is
rung.
An illustration labelled “during conditioning” shows a dog
salivating over a bowl of food while a bell is rung. An illustration
labelled “after conditioning” shows a dog salivating while a bell is
rung.
How does classical conditioning work in the real world? Let’s say you
have a cat named Tiger, who is quite spoiled. You keep her food in a
separate cabinet, and you also have a special electric can opener that
you use only to open cans of cat food. For every meal, Tiger hears the
distinctive sound of the electric can opener (“zzhzhz”) and then gets
her food. Tiger quickly learns that when she hears “zzhzhz” she is about
to get fed. What do you think Tiger does when she hears the electric can
opener? She will likely get excited and run to where you are preparing
her food. This is an example of classical conditioning. In this case,
what are the UCS, CS, UCR, and CR?
What if the cabinet holding Tiger’s food becomes squeaky? In that case,
Tiger hears “squeak” (the cabinet), “zzhzhz” (the electric can opener),
and then she gets her food. Tiger will learn to get excited when she
hears the “squeak” of the cabinet. Pairing a new neutral stimulus
(“squeak”) with the conditioned stimulus (“zzhzhz”) is called
higher-order conditioning, or second-order conditioning.
This means you are using the
conditioned stimulus of the can opener to condition another stimulus:
the squeaky cabinet ([link]). It is hard
to achieve anything above second-order conditioning. For example, if you
ring a bell, open the cabinet (“squeak”), use the can opener (“zzhzhz”),
and then feed Tiger, Tiger will likely never get excited when hearing
the bell alone.
A diagram is labelled “Higher-Order / Second-Order Conditioning” and has three rows.
The first row shows an electric can opener labelled
“conditioned stimulus” followed by a plus sign and then a dish of food
labelled “unconditioned stimulus,” followed by an equal sign and a
picture of a salivating cat labelled “unconditioned response.” The second
row shows a squeaky cabinet door labelled “second-order stimulus”
followed by a plus sign and then an electric can opener labelled
“conditioned stimulus,” followed by an equal sign and a picture of a
salivating cat labelled “conditioned response.” The third row shows a
squeaky cabinet door labelled “second-order stimulus” followed by an
equal sign and a picture of a salivating cat labelled “conditioned
response.”
Classical Conditioning at Stingray City
Kate and her husband Scott recently vacationed in the Cayman Islands,
and booked a boat tour to Stingray City, where they could feed and
swim with the southern stingrays. The boat captain explained how the
normally solitary stingrays have become accustomed to interacting
with humans. About 40 years ago, fishermen began to clean fish and
conch (unconditioned stimulus) at a particular sandbar near a barrier
reef, and large numbers of stingrays would swim in to eat
(unconditioned response) what the fishermen threw into the water;
this continued for years. By the late 1980s, word of the large group
of stingrays spread among scuba divers, who then started feeding them
by hand. Over time, the southern stingrays in the area were
classically conditioned much like Pavlov’s dogs. When they hear the
sound of a boat engine (neutral stimulus that becomes a conditioned
stimulus), they know that they will get to eat (conditioned
response).
A photograph shows a woman standing in the ocean holding a stingray.
As soon as Kate and Scott reached Stingray City, over two dozen
stingrays surrounded their tour boat. The couple slipped into the
water with bags of squid, the stingrays’ favourite treat. The swarm of
stingrays bumped and rubbed up against their legs like hungry cats
([Stingray]). Kate and Scott were able to
feed, pet, and even kiss (for luck) these amazing creatures. Then all
the squid was gone, and so were the stingrays.
Classical conditioning also applies to humans, even babies. For example,
Sara buys formula in blue canisters for her six-month-old daughter,
Angelina. Whenever Sara takes out a formula container, Angelina gets
excited, tries to reach toward the food, and most likely salivates. Why
does Angelina get excited when she sees the formula canister? What are
the UCS, CS, UCR, and CR here?
So far, all of the examples have involved food, but classical
conditioning extends beyond the basic need to be fed. Consider our
earlier example of a dog whose owners install an invisible electric dog
fence. A small electrical shock (unconditioned stimulus) elicits
discomfort (unconditioned response). When the unconditioned stimulus
(shock) is paired with a neutral stimulus (the edge of a yard), the dog
associates the discomfort (unconditioned response) with the edge of the
yard (conditioned stimulus) and stays within the set boundaries. In this
example, the edge of the yard elicits fear and anxiety in the dog. Fear
and anxiety are the conditioned response.
See also
For a humorous look at conditioning, watch this video
clip from the television show
The Office, where Jim conditions Dwight to expect a breath mint
every time Jim’s computer makes a specific sound.
…
Clinical Examples
:class: important
Association of fear with a (feared) object or event. For example the association of fear with
bridges in phobia of bridges, or with blood in blood-injection-injury phobia.
This is called fear-conditioning. It often begins with a single even that produces extreme anxiety
repeated experience of fear while encountering the feared situation. Over time, the site of the object
or even the thought of it provokes anxiety.
Experiencing of drug cravings at places where it has been repeatedly used. It occurs in a similar fashion.
Repeatedly using the drug at certain locations e.g. smoking leads to an association of the place and the feelings
that are produced by using the drug, and the anticipatory feelings before using the drug. These lead to cravings for
Association of fear with dirt (see below).
Association of traumatic feelings with places where people have went through traumatic events.
Aversion of hospitals. People are often brought to hospitals by sickness. Non-clinical staff may develop
an aversion to hospitals because of this association (negative, distressing feelings are associated with hospitals).
Association of sad feelings with depression. When depressed, people are often pre-occupied with
thoughts associated with sadness and depression. Initially, sad thoughts produce sadness and clinical depression. Overtime,
however, these thoughts develop an association with depression and people start to brood over these thoughts whenever they feel low.
Association of euphoria or relief with injections. People who use drugs via intravenous route may develop an association between euphoria or relief and injection.
Initially, the euphoria is produced by the effect of the drug. Later, the injection itself begins to produce euphoria.
Association of sexual feelings with a fetish object. Initially, the sexual arousal is produced by real sexual encounter.
Later, this feeling may be associated with objects or events surrounding the activity.
Association of anger outbursts with the events, places or objects encountered during the event, for example association of seclusion rooms
with violence and anger. Patients exhibiting an anger outburst or violent behaviour are often secluded in a safe room. If a patient is repeatedly
secluded in this way during aggression, they may associate the seclusion room with anger and thus, the seclusion room may provoke even more anger.
Clinical Correlate: Drug Overdose
Classical conditioning may occur between drug use and the surrounding environment, for example,
the people, the place, and the objects. These may elicit and physiological response in the patient.
Returning to such an environment and using the drug again after an interval may precipitate overdose toxicity.
The user may have escalated the dose due to higher tolerance. Upon return, using a higher dose. along with the
physiological response produced by the cues may underlie this overdose toxicity, even with the use of currently
normal dose.
Evaluative conditioning refers to alteration in the liking of a stimulus after the stimulus
is paired repeatedly with a positive or negative stimulus. For example, advertisers associate their
products with positive stimuli, like a the picture of a celebrity. Similarly, association with negative
stimuli may reduce the liking of someone or something.
Clinical Correlate: Anti-smoking Campaigns
One of the anti-smoking campaigns involve putting nasty-looking cancer pictures on cigarette
packs. This technique aims to change people’s attitude towards smoking.
In classical conditioning, the initial period of learning is known as
acquisition, when an organism learns to
connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus. During
acquisition, the neutral stimulus begins to elicit the conditioned
response, and eventually the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned
stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself.
There are four major factors that facilitate the acquisition of a classically conditioned response:
How reliably the conditioned stimulus predicts the unconditioned stimulus
The number of pairings of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
The intensity of the unconditioned stimulus
The temporal relationship between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus.
Clinical Correlate: Conditioned Fear in OCD
Patients with Obsessive-compulsive disorder experience immense distress because of their
intrusive thoughts, for example about dusty hands, or germs. Overtime, this fear develops
an association with the feared stimuli, eg, dust, if the patient remains untreated for long.
Thus, patients with chronic OCD experience the distress directly because of the feared stimuli.
Timing is important for conditioning to occur. Typically, there should only be
a brief interval between presentation of the conditioned stimulus and
the unconditioned stimulus. Depending on what is being conditioned,
sometimes this interval is as little as 5 seconds[1].
However, with other types of conditioning, the interval can be up to
several hours ; one exception is conditioned taste-aversion.
Taste aversion is a type of
conditioning in which an interval of several hours may pass between the
conditioned stimulus (something ingested) and the unconditioned stimulus
(nausea or illness). Here’s how it works. Between classes, you and a
friend grab a quick lunch from a food cart on campus. You share a dish
of chicken curry and head off to your next class. A few hours later, you
feel nauseous and become ill. Although your friend is fine and you
determine that you have intestinal flu (the food is not the culprit),
you’ve developed a taste aversion; the next time you are at a restaurant
and someone orders curry, you immediately feel ill. While the chicken
dish is not what made you sick, you are experiencing taste aversion:
you’ve been conditioned to be averse to a food after a single, negative
experience.
How does this occur—conditioning based on a single instance and
involving an extended time lapse between the event and the negative
stimulus? Research into taste aversion suggests that this response may
be an evolutionary adaptation designed to help organisms quickly learn
to avoid harmful foods [2][3];
The phenomenon is called stimulus preparedness.
It may also help us develop strategies for challenges
such as helping cancer patients through the nausea induced by certain
treatments [4] (Holmes, 1993; Jacobsen et al., 1993; Hutton, Baracos, &
Wismer, 2007; Skolin et al., 2006).
Attention
Conditioned taste-aversion does not depend upon stimulus contiguity.
The underlying phenomenon— stimulus-preparedness may be
an evolutionary adaptation to help survival.
…
Once we have established the connection between the unconditioned
stimulus and the conditioned stimulus, how do we break that connection
and get the dog, cat, or child to stop responding?
In Tiger’s case,
imagine what would happen if you stopped using the electric can opener
for her food and began to use it only for human food. Now, Tiger would
hear the can opener, but she would not get food. In classical
conditioning terms, you would be giving the conditioned stimulus, but
not the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov explored this scenario in his
experiments with dogs: sounding the tone without giving the dogs the
meat powder. Soon the dogs stopped responding to the tone.
Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned
response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the
conditioned stimulus. When presented with the conditioned stimulus
alone, the dog, cat, or other organism would show a weaker and weaker
response, and finally no response. In classical conditioning terms,
there is a gradual weakening and disappearance of the conditioned
response.
What happens when learning is not used for a while—when what was learned
lies dormant? As we just discussed, Pavlov found that when he repeatedly
presented the bell (conditioned stimulus) without the meat powder
(unconditioned stimulus), extinction occurred; the dogs stopped
salivating to the bell. However, after a couple of hours of resting from
this extinction training, the dogs again began to salivate when Pavlov
rang the bell. What do you think would happen with Tiger’s behaviour if
your electric can opener broke, and you did not use it for several
months? When you finally got it fixed and started using it to open
Tiger’s food again, Tiger would remember the association between the can
opener and her food—she would get excited and run to the kitchen when
she heard the sound. The behaviour of Pavlov’s dogs and Tiger illustrates
a concept Pavlov called spontaneous recovery
the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a
rest period ([link]).
A chart has an x-axis labelled “time” and a y-axis labelled “strength of CR”
There are four columns of graphed data. The first column is labelled
acquisition (CS + UCS) and the line rises steeply from the bottom to
the top. The second column is labelled Extinction (CS alone)” and the
line drops rapidly from the top to the bottom. The third column is
labelled Pause and has no line. The fourth column has a line that
begins midway and drops sharply to the bottom. At the point where the
line begins, it is labelled “Spontaneous recovery of CR”; the halfway
point on the line is labelled “Extinction (CS alone).”
…
Renewal effect occurs when extinction occurs in a different environment
than where the acquisition had occurred.
It refers to recovery of conditioned response upon returning to the environment
where when acquisition had occurred.
Acquisition and extinction involve the strengthening and weakening,
respectively, of a learned association. Two other learning
processes—stimulus discrimination and stimulus generalization—are
involved in distinguishing which stimuli will trigger the learned
association.
Animals (including humans) need to distinguish between
stimuli—for example, between sounds that predict a threatening event and
sounds that do not—so that they can respond appropriately (such as
running away if the sound is threatening). When an organism learns to
respond differently to various stimuli that are similar, it is called
stimulus discrimination.
In classical
conditioning terms, the organism demonstrates the conditioned response
only to the conditioned stimulus. Pavlov’s dogs discriminated between
the basic tone that sounded before they were fed and other tones (e.g.,
the doorbell), because the other sounds did not predict the arrival of
food. Similarly, Tiger, the cat, discriminated between the sound of the
can opener and the sound of the electric mixer. When the electric mixer
is going, Tiger is not about to be fed, so she does not come running to
the kitchen looking for food.
When an organism demonstrates the conditioned
response to stimuli that are similar to the condition stimulus, it is
called stimulus generalization, the opposite
of stimulus discrimination.
Stimulus generalization depends on the degreee of similarity between conditioned
stimuli and the new stimulus; a phenomenon called generalization-gradient .
The more similar a stimulus is to the condition stimulus, the more likely
the organism is to give the
conditioned response. For instance, if the electric mixer sounds very
similar to the electric can opener, Tiger may come running after hearing
its sound. But if you do not feed her following the electric mixer
sound, and you continue to feed her consistently after the electric can
opener sound, she will quickly learn to discriminate between the two
sounds (provided they are sufficiently dissimilar that she can tell them
apart).
Sometimes, classical conditioning can lead to habituation.
Habituation occurs when we learn not to
respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. As
the stimulus occurs over and over, we tend not to focus our attention
on it. For example, imagine that your neighbour or roommate constantly
has the television blaring. This background noise is distracting and
makes it difficult for you to focus when you’re studying. However, over
time, you become accustomed to the stimulus of the television noise, and
eventually you hardly notice it any longer.
Fear extinction may occur in similar manner, the fear occurs in the absence of
an actual danger. Overtime, patients learn that the situation is not as threatening
as previously perceived and desensitization ensues.
Clinical Correlate: Extinction with Response Prevention
Exposure with Response-prevention is the most commonly used behavioural
treatment for OCD. In this technique, the patient is asked to inhibit
responses (eg washing hands or checking door) for increasing duration while
being exposed to the conditions that provoke distress. When the patient practices
this repeatedly, habituation takes place. The feared situation induces gradually
decreasing amount of anxiety. This is done in a stepwise, structured manner to
avoid inducing unbearable anxiety in the patient.
Caution
Habituation will not occur to anxiety if exposure occurs with relaxation techniques or
anxiolytics are used. For the treatment of phobias, OCD and other anxiety disorders, the use
of relaxation-techniques during exposure to the feared situation, is therefore, controversial.
John B. Watson, shown in
[link], is considered the founder of
behaviourism. behaviourism is a school of thought that arose during the
first part of the 20th century, which incorporates elements of Pavlov’s
classical conditioning [5].
In stark contrast with Freud, who
considered the reasons for behaviour to be hidden in the unconscious,
Watson championed the idea that all behaviour can be studied as a simple
stimulus-response reaction, without regard for internal processes.
Watson argued that in order for psychology to become a legitimate
science, it must shift its concern away from internal mental processes
because mental processes cannot be seen or measured. Instead, he
asserted that psychology must focus on outward observable behaviour that
can be measured.
Watson argued that in order for psychology to become a legitimate science, it must shift its concern away from internal mental processes
because mental processes cannot be seen or measured.
Instead, he asserted that psychology must focus on outward observable behaviour
that can be measured.
…
Watson’s ideas were influenced by Pavlov’s work. According to Watson,
human behaviour, just like animal behaviour, is primarily the result of
conditioned responses. Whereas Pavlov’s work with dogs involved the
conditioning of reflexes, Watson believed the same principles could be
extended to the conditioning of human emotions (Watson, 1919). Thus
began Watson’s work with his graduate student Rosalie Rayner and a baby
called Little Albert. Through their experiments with Little Albert,
Watson and Rayner (1920) demonstrated how fears can be conditioned.
In 1920, Watson was the chair of the psychology department at Johns
Hopkins University. Through his position at the university he came to
meet Little Albert’s mother, Arvilla Merritte, who worked at a campus
hospital (DeAngelis, 2010). Watson offered her a dollar to allow her son
to be the subject of his experiments in classical conditioning. Through
these experiments, Little Albert was exposed to and conditioned to fear
certain things. Initially he was presented with various neutral stimuli,
including a rabbit, a dog, a monkey, masks, cotton wool, and a white
rat. He was not afraid of any of these things. Then Watson, with the
help of Rayner, conditioned Little Albert to associate these stimuli
with an emotion: fear. For example, Watson handed Little Albert the white
rat, and Little Albert enjoyed playing with it. Then Watson made a loud
sound, by striking a hammer against a metal bar hanging behind Little
Albert’s head, each time Little Albert touched the rat. Little Albert
was frightened by the sound—demonstrating a reflexive fear of sudden
loud noises—and began to cry. Watson repeatedly paired the loud sound
with the white rat. Soon Little Albert became frightened by the white
rat alone.
Days later,
Little Albert demonstrated stimulus generalization—he became afraid of
other furry things: a rabbit, a furry coat, and even a Santa Claus mask
([link]). Watson had succeeded in
conditioning a fear response in Little Albert, thus demonstrating that
emotions could become conditioned responses. It had been Watson’s
intention to produce a phobia—a persistent, excessive fear of a specific
object or situation— through conditioning alone, thus countering Freud’s
view that phobias are caused by deep, hidden conflicts in the mind.
However, there is no evidence that Little Albert experienced phobias in
later years. Little Albert’s mother moved away, ending the experiment,
and Little Albert himself died a few years later of unrelated causes.
While Watson’s research provided new insight into conditioning, it would
be considered unethical by today’s standards.
A photograph shows a man wearing a mask with a white beard; his face is
close to a baby who is crawling away.
See also
View scenes from John Watson’s
experiment in which Little Albert
was conditioned to respond in fear to furry objects.
As you watch the video, look closely at Little Albert’s reactions and
the manner in which Watson and Rayner present the stimuli before and
after conditioning. Based on what you see, would you come to the same
conclusions as the researchers?
Acquisition, Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery in Humans
Of course, these processes also apply in humans. For example, let’s say
that every day when you walk to campus, an ice cream truck passes your
route. Day after day, you hear the truck’s music (neutral stimulus), so
you finally stop and purchase a chocolate ice cream bar. You take a bite
(unconditioned stimulus) and then your mouth waters (unconditioned
response). This initial period of learning is known as acquisition, when
you begin to connect the neutral stimulus (the sound of the truck) and
the unconditioned stimulus (the taste of the chocolate ice cream in your
mouth). During acquisition, the conditioned response gets stronger and
stronger through repeated pairings of the conditioned stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus.
Several days (and ice cream bars) later, you
notice that your mouth begins to water (conditioned response) as soon as
you hear the truck’s musical jingle—even before you bite into the ice
cream bar. Then one day you head down the street. You hear the truck’s
music (conditioned stimulus), and your mouth waters (conditioned
response). However, when you get to the truck, you discover that they
are all out of ice cream. You leave disappointed. The next few days you
pass by the truck and hear the music, but don’t stop to get an ice cream
bar because you’re running late for class. You begin to salivate less
and less when you hear the music, until by the end of the week, your
mouth no longer waters when you hear the tune. This illustrates
extinction. The conditioned response weakens when only the conditioned
stimulus (the sound of the truck) is presented, without being followed
by the unconditioned stimulus (chocolate ice cream in the mouth).
Then the weekend comes. You don’t have to go to class, so you don’t pass the
truck. Monday morning arrives and you take your usual route to campus.
You round the corner and hear the truck again. What do you think
happens? Your mouth begins to water again. Why? After a break from
conditioning, the conditioned response reappears, which indicates
spontaneous recovery.
Clinical Correlate: Renewal Effect in Substance Use
Upon returning to home, patients with substance use disorders
who have been detoxified and even rehabilitated, are at a high risk
of relapse, because of renewal effect. Cues to which the patient has
previous been conditioned may trigger this relapse. Cue Exposure Therapy
aims to reduce this risk. In addition to extinction, patients are repeatedly
exposed to the cues that are likely to trigger relapse, thus causing
desensitization/habituation. This way the risk of renewal effect and 4
spontaneous recovery is minimised.
Advertising and Evaluative Conditioning
Advertising executives are pros at applying the principles of
associative learning. Think about the car commercials you have seen
on television. Many of them feature an attractive model. By
associating the model with the car being advertised, you come to see
the car as being desirable (Cialdini, 2008). You may be asking
yourself, does this advertising technique actually work? According to
Cialdini (2008), men who viewed a car commercial that included an
attractive model later rated the car as being faster, more appealing,
and better designed than did men who viewed an advertisement for the
same car minus the model.
Have you ever noticed how quickly advertisers cancel contracts with a
famous athlete following a scandal? As far as the advertiser is
concerned, that athlete is no longer associated with positive
feelings; therefore, the athlete cannot be used as an unconditioned
stimulus to condition the public to associate positive feelings (the
unconditioned response) with their product (the conditioned
stimulus).
Now that you are aware of how associative learning works, see if you
can find examples of these types of advertisements on television, in
magazines, or on the Internet.
Pavlov’s pioneering work with dogs contributed greatly to what we know
about learning. His experiments explored the type of associative
learning we now call classical conditioning. In classical conditioning,
organisms learn to associate events that repeatedly happen together, and
researchers study how a reflexive response to a stimulus can be mapped
to a different stimulus—by training an association between the two
stimuli. Pavlov’s experiments show how stimulus-response bonds are
formed. Watson, the founder of behaviourism, was greatly influenced by
Pavlov’s work. He tested humans by conditioning fear in an infant known
as Little Albert. His findings suggest that classical conditioning can
explain how some fears develop.
Question
A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response in an
organism is a(n):
unconditioned stimulus
neutral stimulus
conditioned stimulus
unconditioned response
Check Answer
B
Question
In Watson and Rayner’s experiments, Little Albert was conditioned
to fear a white rat, and then he began to be afraid of other furry
white objects. This demonstrates:
higher order conditioning
acquisition
stimulus discrimination
stimulus generalization
Check Answer
D
Question
Extinction occurs when:
The conditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being
paired with an unconditioned stimulus
The unconditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without
being paired with a conditioned stimulus
The neutral stimulus is presented repeatedly without being
paired with an unconditioned stimulus
The neutral stimulus is presented repeatedly without being
paired with a conditioned stimulus
Check Answer
A
Question
In Pavlov’s work with dogs, the psychic secretions were:
If the sound of your toaster popping up toast causes your mouth to
water, what are the UCS, CS, and CR?
The food being toasted is the UCS; the sound of the toaster
popping up is the CS; salivating to the sound of the toaster is
the CR.
Explain how the processes of stimulus generalization and stimulus
discrimination are considered opposites.
In stimulus generalization, an organism responds to new stimuli
that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus. For
example, a dog barks when the doorbell rings. He then barks when
the oven timer dings because it sounds very similar to the
doorbell. On the other hand, stimulus discrimination occurs when
an organism learns a response to a specific stimulus, but does not
respond the same way to new stimuli that are similar. In this
case, the dog would bark when he hears the doorbell, but he would
not bark when he hears the oven timer ding because they sound
different; the dog is able to distinguish between the two sounds.
How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?
This occurs through the process of acquisition. A human or an
animal learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned
stimulus. During the acquisition phase, the neutral stimulus
begins to elicit the conditioned response. The neutral stimulus is
becoming the conditioned stimulus. At the end of the acquisition
phase, learning has occurred and the neutral stimulus becomes a
conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned response
by itself.
What is classical conditioning and who described it?
Can you think of an example in your life of how classical
conditioning has produced a positive emotional response, such as
happiness or excitement? How about a negative emotional response,
such as fear, anxiety, or anger?
Discuss the ethical aspects of Watson’s experimentation with Little Albert.
period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a
human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to
elicit the conditioned response ^
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Explain the difference between reinforcement and punishment
Distinguish between reinforcement schedules
The previous section of this chapter focused on the type of associative
learning known as classical conditioning. Remember that in classical
conditioning, something in the environment triggers a reflex
automatically, and researchers train the organism to react to a
different stimulus. Now we turn to the second type of associative
learning, operant conditioning. In operant
conditioning, organisms learn to associate a behaviour and its
consequence ([link]). A pleasant consequence makes
that behaviour more likely to be repeated in the future. For example,
Spirit, a dolphin at the National Aquarium in Baltimore, does a flip in
the air when her trainer blows a whistle. The consequence is that she
gets a fish.
The target behaviour is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either
strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit
the desired behaviour in the future. The behaviour is operant in this case, because
it operates on the environment.
Clinically-Application
Before planning behavioural modification, it is important to delineate whether the
problem behaviour is respondent or operant . This can be done with the ABC approach
in which a diary of the antecedent-behaviour-consequence is kept. Respondent
behaviour is treated by elimination or replacement of the antecedent stimulus, while
operant is treated by adressing the consequences.
An unconditioned
stimulus (such as
food) is paired with
a neutral stimulus
(such as a bell).
The neutral stimulus
eventually becomes
the conditioned
stimulus, which
brings about the
conditioned response
(salivation).
The target behaviour
is followed by
reinforcement or
punishment to either
strengthen or weaken
it, so that the
learner is more
likely to exhibit
the desired behaviour
in the future.
Stimulus timing
The stimulus occurs
immediately before
the response.
The stimulus (either
reinforcement or
punishment) occurs
soon after the
response.
Psychologist BF Skinner saw
that classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviours that are
reflexively elicited, and it doesn’t account for new behaviours such as
riding a bike. He proposed a theory about how such behaviours come about.
Skinner believed that behaviour is motivated by the consequences we
receive for the behaviour: the reinforcements and punishments. His idea
that learning is the result of consequences is based on the law of
effect , which was first proposed by psychologist Edward
Thorndike.
According to the law of effect, behaviours that are followed by
consequences that are satisfying to the person are more likely to be
repeated, and behaviours that are followed by unpleasant consequences are
less likely to be repeated (Thorndike, 1911). Essentially, if an
individual does something that brings about a desired result, the person
is more likely to do it again. If someone does something that does
not bring about a desired result, the person is less likely to do it
again. An example of the law of effect is in employment. One of the
reasons (and often the main reason) we show up for work is because we
get paid to do so. If we stop getting paid, we will likely stop showing
up—even if we love our job.
Law of Effect
Any response followed by a satisfying situation (drive reduction?)
Is likely to be repeated.
Behaviours resulting in an annoying situation are less likely to occur.
Actions that subsequently lead to a “satisfying state of affairs”
are more likely to be repeated.
Working with Thorndike’s law of effect as his foundation, Skinner began
conducting scientific experiments on animals (mainly rats and pigeons)
to determine how organisms learn through operant conditioning (Skinner,
1938). He placed these animals inside an operant conditioning chamber,
which has come to be known as a Skinner box
([Skinner-Box]). A Skinner box contains
a lever
(for rats) or disk (for pigeons) that the animal can press or peck for a
food reward via the dispenser. Speakers and lights can be associated
with certain behaviours. A recorder counts the number of responses made
by the animal.
An illustration shows a rat in a Skinner box:
a chamber with a speaker, lights, a lever, and a food dispenser.
See also
Watch this brief video clip to
learn more about operant conditioning: Skinner is interviewed, and
operant conditioning of pigeons is demonstrated.
In discussing operant conditioning, we use several everyday
words—positive, negative, reinforcement, and punishment—in a specialized
manner. In operant conditioning, positive and negative do not mean good
and bad. Instead, positive means adding something, and
negative means taking something away. Reinforcement means
increasing a behaviour, and punishment means decreasing
a behaviour. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, and punishment
can also be positive or negative. All reinforcers (positive or negative)
increase the likelihood of a behavioural response. All punishers
(positive or negative) decrease the likelihood of a behavioural
response. Now let us combine these four terms: positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment
([link]).
Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment
Reinforcement
Punishment
Positive
Something is added to
increase the likelihood
of a behaviour.
Something is added to
decrease the likelihood
of a behaviour.
Negative
Something is removed to
increase the likelihood
of a behaviour.
Something is removed to
decrease the likelihood
of a behaviour.
An event that follows a response and increases the strength of the response and/or the likelihood that it will be repeated is known as a reinforcer.
A reinforcer always increases the probability or intensity of a response occurring.
Reinforcement is the process by which consequences—a stimulus or an event follows a behaviour—lead to an increase in the likelihood
that the response will occur again. Reinforcement may be positive or negative depending on whether the outcome of a behaviour a true reward—a positive stimulus
or reinforcer eg praise—OR the removal of an aversive stimulus.
Positive reinforcement is the most effective way to teach a person or animal a new behaviour.
In positive reinforcement, a desirable stimulus is added to increase a behaviour.
For example, a parent tells his five-year-old son, Saad, that if he cleans
his room, he will get a toy. Saad quickly cleans his room because he
wants a new art set. Let us pause for a moment. Some people might say,
“Why should I reward my child for doing what is expected?” But in fact,
we are constantly and consistently rewarded in our lives. Our paychecks
are rewards, as are high grades and acceptance into our preferred
school. Being praised for doing a good job and passing a driver’s
test is also a reward. Positive reinforcement as a learning tool is
highly effective. It has been found that one of the most effective
ways to increase achievement in school districts with below-average
reading scores was to pay the children to read. Specifically,
second-grade students in Dallas were paid $2 each time they read a book
and passed a short quiz about it. The result was a significantly
increased reading comprehension (Fryer, 2010). What do you think about
this program? If Skinner were alive today, he would probably think this
was a great idea. He was a strong proponent of using operant
conditioning principles to influence students’ behaviour at school. In
fact, in addition to the Skinner box, he also invented what he called
the teaching machine that was designed to reward small steps in learning
(Skinner, 1961)—an early forerunner of computer-assisted learning. His
teaching machine tested students’ knowledge as they worked through
various school subjects. If students answered questions correctly, they
received immediate positive reinforcement and could continue; if they
answered incorrectly, they did not receive any reinforcement. The idea
was that students would spend additional time studying the material to
increase their chance of being reinforced the next time (Skinner, 1961).
In negative reinforcement, an undesirable
stimulus is removed to increase a behaviour. For example, car
manufacturers use the principles of negative reinforcement in their
seatbelt systems, which go “beep, beep, beep” until you fasten your
seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired
behaviour, increasing the likelihood that you will buckle up in the
future. Negative reinforcement is also used frequently in horse
training. Riders apply pressure—by pulling the reins or squeezing their
legs—and then remove the pressure when the horse performs the desired
behaviour, such as turning or speeding up. The pressure is the negative
stimulus that the horse wants to remove.
In substances users, using a drug to relieve withdrawal symptoms is also an example
of negative reinforcement.
When two different behaviours are reinforced and then the reinforcement of
one behaviour is withdrawn to extinguish it, the other behaviour is likely to increase.
Differential reinforcement is defined as reinforcing a specific type behaviour
while withholding reinforcement for another behaviour. It may be useful for a child
who exhibits an unwanted behaviour; attention to the unwanted behaviour is reduced
while the child may be reinforced for an alternative, though not
incompatible behaviour.
Clinical Correlate
Amina, for instance, rips hair out of her head while finishing her personal tasks.
Her therapist chooses to reinforce the lack of hair pulling by using differential reinforcement.
The therapist follows these steps and places a three-minute timer on Amina’s desk.
Amina is reinforced if she refrains from pulling her hair for the full three minutes.
If Amina does pull her hair, the countdown is restarted and she is not reinforced.
A high-probability behaviour can be used to reinforce a low-probability behaviour.
For example, listening to online classes over favourite devices,
or listening to music while doing heavy workouts.
Many people confuse negative reinforcement with punishment in operant
conditioning, but they are two very different mechanisms. Remember that
reinforcement, even when it is negative, always increases a behaviour. In
contrast, punishment always decreases a
behaviour. In positive punishment, you add an
undesirable stimulus to decrease a behaviour.
An example of positive
punishment is scolding a student to get the student to stop texting in
class. In this case, a stimulus (the reprimand) is added in order to
decrease the behaviour (texting in class).
In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour.
For example, when a child misbehaves, a parent can take away a favourite
toy. In this case, a stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease
the behaviour.
Attention
Negative reinforcement and punishment are not the same. See text for more details.
Punishment, especially when it is immediate, is one way to decrease
undesirable behaviour. For example, imagine your four-year-old son,
Brandon, hit his younger brother. You have Brandon write 100 times “I
will not hit my brother” (positive punishment). Chances are he won’t
repeat this behaviour.
While strategies like this are common today, in
the past, children were often subject to physical punishment, such as
spanking. It’s important to be aware of some of the drawbacks in using
physical punishment on children.
First, punishment may teach fear.
Brandon may become fearful of the street, but he also may become fearful
of the person who delivered the punishment—you, his parent. Similarly,
children whom teachers punish may come to fear the teacher and
try to avoid school (Gershoff et al., 2010). Consequently, most schools
in the United States have banned corporal punishment. Second, punishment
may cause children to become more aggressive and prone to antisocial
behaviour and delinquency (Gershoff, 2002). They see their parents resort
to spanking when they become angry and frustrated, so, in turn, they may
act out this same behaviour when they become angry and frustrated. For
example, because you spank Brenda when you are angry with her for her
misbehaviour, she might start hitting her friends when they won’t share
their toys.
While positive punishment can be effective in some cases, Skinner
suggested that the use of punishment should be weighed against the
possible negative effects. Today’s psychologists and parenting experts
favour reinforcement over punishment—they recommend that you catch your
child doing something good and reward her for it.
Typically, studies show that children who receive corporal punishment have higher levels of aggression,
delinquency, and behavioural issues (Gershoff, 2002).
Doing so is also linked over time to a variety of mental health disorders,
increased criminal behaviour, and slower cognitive development.
Some have argued that the evidence connecting spanking to harmful outcomes is correlational,
and correlation does not imply causality.
It really is possible that spanking makes kids more aggressive, but it’s also conceivable that violent kids make their parents employ physical punishment more frequently.
However, the American Psychological Association strictly advises against the use of corporal punishments in children.
Warning
Corporal punishment must not be avoided in children. Children exposed to corporal punishments
are likely to develop aggressive and violent traits as adults,
and are predisposed to a variety of psychiatric disorders.
Delinquency and slower cognitive development are also associated with corporal punishments.
In his operant conditioning experiments, Skinner often used an approach
called shaping. Instead of rewarding only the target behaviour, in
shaping, we reward successive approximations
of a target behaviour.
Remember that the organism must first display the behaviour for reinforcement to work.
Shaping is needed because it is improbable that an organism will
spontaneously display anything but the simplest of behaviours. In
shaping, behaviours are broken down into many small, achievable steps.
Steps of Shaping
In shaping, the desired behaviour is achieved in several
small achievable steps—much like in systematic desensitization.
This this step is key to the success of behaviour modification with shaping.
The specific steps used in the process are the following:
Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behaviour.
Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behaviour. You will no longer reinforce the previously reinforced
response.
Next, begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behaviour.
Successive approximations: Continue to reinforce closer and closer approximations of the desired
behaviour.
Finally, only reinforce the desired behaviour.
A series of gradual steps, each of which is more like the final desired response.
It involves rewarding behaviours that approximate the target behaviour
and so behaviours come closer and closer to the target behaviour.
There is a reinforcement of each of these simple steps of behaviour
that lead to a desired, more complex behaviour.
Shaping is often used in teaching a complex behaviour or chain of
behaviours. Skinner used shaping to teach pigeons not only such
relatively simple behaviours as pecking a disk in a Skinner box, but also
many unusual and entertaining behaviours, such as turning in circles,
walking in figure eights, and even playing ping pong; the technique is
commonly used by animal trainers today. An essential part of shaping is
stimulus discrimination. Recall Pavlov’s dogs—he trained them to respond
to the tone of a bell, and not to similar tones or sounds. This
discrimination is also important in operant conditioning and in shaping
behaviour.
See also
Here is a brief video of
Skinner’s pigeons playing ping pong.
It’s easy to see how shaping is effective in teaching behaviours to
animals, but how does shaping work with humans? Let’s consider parents
whose goal is to have their child learn to clean his room. They use
shaping to help him master steps toward the goal. Instead of performing
the entire task, they set up these steps and reinforce each step. First,
he cleans up one toy. Second, he cleans up five toys. Third, he chooses
whether to pick up ten toys or put his books and clothes away. Fourth,
he cleans up everything except two toys. Finally, he cleans his entire
room.
Rewards such as stickers, praise, money, toys, and more can be used to
reinforce learning. Let’s go back to Skinner’s rats again. How did the
rats learn to press the lever in the Skinner box? They were rewarded
with food each time they pressed the lever. For animals, food would be
an obvious reinforcer.
What would be a good reinforcer for humans? For your daughter Sydney, it
was the promise of a toy if she cleaned her room. How about Joaquin, the
soccer player? If you gave Joaquin a piece of candy every time he made a
goal, you would be using a primary reinforcer.
Primary reinforcers are reinforcers that have innate reinforcing
qualities. These kinds of reinforcers are not learned. Water, food,
sleep, shelter, sex, and touch, among others, are primary reinforcers.
Pleasure is also a primary reinforcer. Organisms do not lose their drive
for these things. For most people, jumping in a cool lake on a very hot
day would be reinforcing and the cool lake would be innately
reinforcing—the water would cool the person off (a physical need), as
well as provide pleasure.
A secondary reinforcer has no inherent value
and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with a primary
reinforcer. Praise, linked to affection, is one example of a secondary
reinforcer, as when you called out “Great shot!” every time Joaquin made
a goal. Another example, money, is only worth something when you can use
it to buy other things—either things that satisfy basic needs (food,
water, shelter—all primary reinforcers) or other secondary reinforcers.
If you were on a remote island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean and
you had stacks of money, the money would not be useful if you could not
spend it. What about the stickers on the behaviour chart? They also are
secondary reinforcers.
Important
Star charts use secondary reinforcers. Tokens used in token economies (see below)
are also secondary reinforcers.
Sometimes, instead of stickers on a sticker chart, a token is used.
Tokens, which are also secondary reinforcers, can then be traded in for
rewards and prizes. Entire behaviour management systems, known as token
economies, are built around the use of these kinds of token reinforcers.
Token economies have been found to be very effective at modifying
behaviour in a variety of settings such as schools, prisons, and mental
hospitals.
For example, a study by Cangi and Daly (2013) found that use
of a token economy increased appropriate social behaviours and reduced
inappropriate behaviours in a group of autistic school children. Autistic
children tend to exhibit disruptive behaviours such as pinching and
hitting. When the children in the study exhibited appropriate behaviour
(not hitting or pinching), they received a “quiet hands” token. When
they hit or pinched, they lost a token. The children could then exchange
specified amounts of tokens for minutes of playtime.
Clinical Correlate
Behaviour Modification in Children
Parents and teachers often use behaviour modification to change a
child’s behaviour. Behaviour modification uses the principles of
operant conditioning to accomplish behaviour change so that
undesirable behaviours are switched for more socially acceptable ones.
A photograph shows a child placing stickers on a chart hanging on the wall.
Some teachers and parents create a sticker chart, in which several
behaviours are listed ([Stickers]). Sticker
charts are a form of token economies, as described in the text. Each
time children perform the behaviour, they get a sticker, and after a
certain number of stickers, they get a prize, or reinforcer. The goal
is to increase acceptable behaviours and decrease misbehaviour.
Remember, it is best to reinforce desired behaviours, rather than to
use punishment.
In the classroom, the teacher can reinforce a wide range of behaviours, from students raising their hands, to walking quietly in the hall, to turning in their homework.
At home, parents might create a behaviour chart that rewards children for things such as putting away toys, brushing their teeth, and helping with dinner.
In order for behaviour modification to be effective, the reinforcement
needs to be connected with the behaviour; the reinforcement must
matter to the child and be done consistently.
Time-out is another popular technique used in behaviour modification
with children, especially those with intellectual disability.
It works according to the principle of negative punishment.
When a child demonstrates an undesirable behaviour, she is removed
from the desirable activity at hand.
([link]). For example, say that Sadia and
her brother Salman are playing with building blocks. Sadia throws
some blocks at her brother, so her parent give her a warning that she will
go to time-out if she does it again. A few minutes later, she throws
more blocks at Salman. Caregiver removes Sadia from the room for a few
minutes. When she comes back, she doesn’t throw blocks.
This technique is especially useful for managing aggressive behaviour.
There are several important points that a parent should know before
implementing time-out as a behaviour modification technique.
First, make sure the child is being removed from a desirable activity and placed in a less desirable location. If the activity is something undesirable for the child, this technique will backfire because it is more enjoyable for the child to be removed from the activity.
Second, the length of the time-out is important. The general rule of thumb is one minute for each year of the child’s age. Sadia is five; therefore, she sits in a time-out for five minutes. Setting a timer helps children know how long they have to sit in time-out.
Finally, as a caregiver, keep several guidelines in mind over the course of a time-out: remain calm when directing your child to time-out; ignore your child during time-out (because caregiver attention may reinforce misbehaviour); and give the child a hug or a kind word when time-out is over.
Photograph A shows several children climbing on playground
equipment. Photograph B shows a child sitting alone at a table
looking at the playground.
Remember, the best way to teach a person or animal a behaviour is to use
positive reinforcement. For example, Skinner used positive reinforcement
to teach rats to press a lever in a Skinner box. At first, the rat might
randomly hit the lever while exploring the box, and out would come a
pellet of food. After eating the pellet, what do you think the hungry
rat did next? It hit the lever again, and received another pellet of
food. Each time the rat hit the lever, a pellet of food came out. When
an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behaviour, it
is called continuous reinforcement. This
reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behaviour,
and it is especially effective in training a new behaviour. Let’s look
back at the dog that was learning to sit earlier in the chapter. Now,
each time he sits, you give him a treat. Timing is important here: you
will be most successful if you present the reinforcer immediately after
he sits, so that he can make an association between the target behaviour
(sitting) and the consequence (getting a treat).
See also
Watch this video
clip
where veterinarian Dr. Sofia Yin shapes a dog’s behaviour using the
steps outlined above.
Once a behaviour is trained, researchers and trainers often turn to
another type of reinforcement schedule—partial reinforcement. In
partial reinforcement, also referred to as
intermittent reinforcement, the person or animal does not get reinforced
every time they perform the desired behaviour. There are several
different types of partial reinforcement schedules
([link]). These schedules are described as either
fixed or variable, and as either interval or ratio. Fixed refers to
the number of responses between reinforcements, or the amount of time
between reinforcements, which is set and unchanging. Variable refers
to the number of responses or amount of time between reinforcements,
which varies or changes. Interval means the schedule is based on the
time between reinforcements, and ratio means the schedule is based on
the number of responses between reinforcements.
Now let’s combine these four terms. A fixed interval reinforcement schedule
is when behaviour is rewarded after a
set amount of time. For example, June undergoes major surgery in a
hospital. During recovery, she is expected to experience pain and will
require prescription medications for pain relief. June is given an IV
drip with a patient-controlled painkiller. Her doctor sets a limit: one
dose per hour. June pushes a button when pain becomes difficult, and she
receives a dose of medication. Since the reward (pain relief) only
occurs on a fixed interval, there is no point in exhibiting the behaviour
when it will not be rewarded.
With a variable interval reinforcement schedule, the person or animal gets the reinforcement based on
varying amounts of time, which are unpredictable. Say that Manuel is the
manager at a fast-food restaurant. Every once in a while someone from
the quality control division comes to Manuel’s restaurant. If the
restaurant is clean and the service is fast, everyone on that shift
earns a $20 bonus. Manuel never knows when the quality control person
will show up, so he always tries to keep the restaurant clean and
ensures that his employees provide prompt and courteous service. His
productivity regarding prompt service and keeping a clean restaurant are
steady because he wants his crew to earn the bonus.
With a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule,
there are a set number of responses that must occur before the behaviour
is rewarded. Carla sells glasses at an eyeglass store, and she earns a
commission every time she sells a pair of glasses. She always tries to
sell people more pairs of glasses, including prescription sunglasses or
a backup pair, so she can increase her commission. She does not care if
the person really needs the prescription sunglasses, Carla just wants
her bonus. The quality of what Carla sells does not matter because her
commission is not based on quality; it’s only based on the number of
pairs sold. This distinction in the quality of performance can help
determine which reinforcement method is most appropriate for a
particular situation. Fixed ratios are better suited to optimize the
quantity of output, whereas a fixed interval, in which the reward is not
quantity based, can lead to a higher quality of output.
In a variable ratio reinforcement schedule,
the number of responses needed for a reward varies. This is the most
powerful partial reinforcement schedule. An example of the variable
ratio reinforcement schedule is gambling.
Imagine that Sarah—generally an intelligent, thrifty woman—visits Las Vegas for the first time. She is not a
gambler, but out of curiosity, she puts a quarter into the slot machine,
and then another, and another. Nothing happens. Two dollars in quarters
later, her curiosity is fading, and she is just about to quit. But then,
the machine lights up, bells go off, and Sarah gets 50 quarters back.
That is more like it! Sarah gets back to inserting quarters with renewed
interest, and a few minutes later, she has used up all her gains and is
$10 in the hole. Now might be a reasonable time to quit. Nevertheless, she
keeps putting money into the slot machine because she never knows when
the next reinforcement is coming. She keeps thinking that she could win
$50, or $100, or even more in the next quarter. Because the
reinforcement schedule in most types of gambling has a variable ratio
schedule, people keep trying and hoping that the next time they will win
big. This is one of the reasons that gambling is excessively addictive—and so
resistant to extinction.
Clinical Correlate
Gambling employs the variable-ratio schedule.
Behaviours reinforced through variable ratio schedule are most resistant to extinction.
In operant conditioning, the extinction of a reinforced behaviour occurs at
some point after reinforcement stops, and the speed at which this
happens depends on the reinforcement schedule. In a variable ratio
schedule, the point of extinction comes very slowly, as described above.
But in the other reinforcement schedules, extinction may come quickly.
For example, if June presses the button for the pain relief medication
before the allotted time her doctor has approved, no medication is
administered. She is on a fixed interval reinforcement schedule (dosed
hourly), so extinction occurs quickly when reinforcement doesn’t come at
the expected time. Among the reinforcement schedules, variable ratio is
the most productive and the most resistant to extinction. Fixed interval
is the least productive and the easiest to extinguish
([link]).
A graph has an x-axis labeled “Time” and a y-axis labeled “Cumulative
number of responses.”
Two lines labeled “Variable Ratio” and “Fixed
Ratio” have similar, steep slopes. The variable ratio line remains
straight and is marked in random points where reinforcement occurs. The
fixed ratio line has consistently spaced marks indicating where
reinforcement has occurred, but after each reinforcement, there is a
small drop in the line before it resumes its overall slope. Two lines
labeled “Variable Interval” and “Fixed Interval” have similar slopes at
roughly a 45-degree angle. The variable interval line remains straight
and is marked in random points where reinforcement occurs. The fixed
interval line has consistently spaced marks indicating where
reinforcement has occurred, but after each reinforcement, there is a
drop in the line.
“If the gambling establishment cannot persuade
a patron to turn over money with no return, it may achieve the same
effect by returning part of the patron’s money on a variable-ratio
schedule” (p. 397).
Skinner uses gambling as an example of the power and effectiveness of
conditioning behaviour based on a variable ratio reinforcement
schedule. Skinner was so confident in his knowledge of
gambling addiction that he even claimed he could turn a pigeon into a
pathological gambler (“Skinner’s Utopia,” 1971). Beyond the power of
variable ratio reinforcement, gambling seems to work on the brain in
the same way as some substances of abuse. The Illinois Institute for
Addiction Recovery (n.d.) reports evidence suggesting that
pathological gambling is an addiction similar to a chemical addiction
([link]). Specifically, gambling may
activate the brain’s reward centers, like other substances of abuse.
Research has shown that some pathological gamblers have lower levels
of norepinephrine than do normal gamblers (Roy, et al., 1988).
According to a study conducted by Alec Roy and colleagues,
norepinephrine is secreted during
stress, arousal, or thrill; pathological gamblers use
gambling to increase their levels of this neurotransmitter.
Another researcher, neuroscientist Hans Breiter, has done extensive research
on gambling and its effects on the brain. Breiter (as cited in
Franzen, 2001) reports that “Monetary reward in a gambling-like
experiment produces brain activation very similar to that observed in
a cocaine addict receiving an infusion of cocaine” (para. 1).
Deficiencies in serotonin might also
contribute to compulsive behaviour, including a gambling addiction.
It may be that pathological gamblers’ brains are different than those
of other people, and perhaps this difference may somehow have led to
their gambling addiction, as these studies seem to suggest. However,
it is very difficult to ascertain the cause because it is impossible
to conduct a true experiment (it would be unethical to try to turn
randomly assigned participants into problem gamblers). Therefore, it
may be that causation actually moves in the opposite
direction—perhaps the act of gambling somehow changes
neurotransmitter levels in some gamblers’ brains. It also is possible
that some overlooked factor, or confounding variable, played a role
in both the gambling addiction and the differences in brain
chemistry.
A photograph shows four digital gambling machines.
Gaming disorder is a new diagnostic category in the ICD-11. Game studios intentionally
employ reinforcements in different forms. Enough evidence has now emerged to convince the
World Health Organization to officially recognize gaming addiction as health condition.
It is however, like gambling disorder, classified under
Impulse Control Disorders
Mental processes such as thinking, knowing, problem-solving, and remembering
According to cognitive theorists, these processes are critically important in a more complete, more comprehensive view of learning
Proposed by Wolfgang Köhler. Insight is the sudden realization of the
relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent.
A method of learning where a problem is solved by using reason, particularly to draw conclusions,
inferences, or judgments. In contrast to trial-and-error learning, insight learning involves addressing
problems based on conceptual experiments rather than actual experience (unlike trial-and-error stages).
When someone has been stuck in a difficulty for a while and all of a sudden realises how to fix it,
this happens frequently. This was seen in Wolfgang Kohler’s chimpanzee experimentation in the 1900s.
Kohler discovered that chimpanzees could answer issues without error by using insight learning.
In one instance, a banana was positioned such that chimpanzees couldn’t reach it, but they managed to do it.
To get there, they stacked boxes on top of one another, then they used sticks to knock the banana over.
Although strict behaviourists such as Skinner and Watson refused to
believe that cognition (such as thoughts and expectations) plays a role
in learning, another behaviourist, Edward C. Tolman, had a different opinion.
Tolman’s experiments with rats demonstrated that organisms can learn even if they
do not receive immediate
reinforcement. [2][3]
This finding was in conflict with the
prevailing idea at the time that reinforcement must be immediate in
order for learning to occur, thus suggesting a cognitive aspect to
learning.
In the experiments, Tolman placed hungry rats in a maze with no reward
for finding their way through it. He also studied a comparison group
that was rewarded with food at the end of the maze. As the unreinforced
rats explored the maze, they developed a cognitive map a mental picture of the layout of the maze
([link]). After 10 sessions in the maze
without reinforcement, food was placed in a goal box at the end of the
maze. As soon as the rats became aware of the food, they were able to
find their way through the maze quickly, just as quickly as the
comparison group, which had been rewarded with food all along. This is
known as latent learning: learning that occurs
but is not observable in behaviour until there is a reason to demonstrate
it.
An illustration shows three rats in a maze, with a starting point and food at the end.
Latent learning also occurs in humans. Children may learn by watching
the actions of their parents but only demonstrate it at a later date,
when the learned material is needed. For example, suppose that Ravi’s
dad drives him to school every day. In this way, Ravi learns the route
from his house to his school, but he’s never driven there himself, so he
has not had a chance to demonstrate that he’s learned the way. One
morning Ravi’s dad has to leave early for a meeting, so he can’t drive
Ravi to school. Instead, Ravi follows the same route on his bike that
his dad would have taken in the car. This demonstrates latent learning.
Ravi had learned the route to school, but had no need to demonstrate
this knowledge earlier.
Tip
This Place Is Like a Maze
Have you ever gotten lost in a building and couldn’t find your way
back out? While that can be frustrating, you’re not alone. At one
time or another we’ve all gotten lost in places like a museum,
hospital, or university library. Whenever we go someplace new, we
build a mental representation—or cognitive map—of the location, as
Tolman’s rats built a cognitive map of their maze. However, some
buildings are confusing because they include many areas that look
alike or have short lines of sight. Because of this, it’s often
difficult to predict what’s around a corner or decide whether to turn
left or right to get out of a building. Psychologist Laura Carlson
(2010) suggests that
what we place in our cognitive map can impact
our success in navigating through the environment. She suggests that
paying attention to specific features upon entering a building, such
as a picture on the wall, a fountain, a statue, or an escalator, adds
information to our cognitive map that can be used later to help find
our way out of the building.
See also
Watch this to learn more about Carlson’s studies on cognitive maps and navigation in
buildings.
Behaviours that are maintained by negative reinforcement (escape Behaviour because the organism’s performance allows the organism to escape an undesirable stimulus).
Escape behaviour is a two-factor form of learning (the organism learns to identify a stimulus that signals the initiation of an aversive stimulus).
If the organism performs the target behaviour in the presence of a cue, the organism can escape the negative reinforcer.
Two factors
Discrimination learning (cue) and
Avoidance or escape learning. l
Clinical Correlate
Substance users begin to experience withdrawal symptoms in the course of development of drug dependence.
At some point, the user learns that the use of the substance can help reduce—escape—this unpleasant state.
This is an example of escape learning.
Gradually, substance users learn to prevent withdrawal from happening by using the substance at the earliest cues of withdrawal.
This would be avoidance learning.
Operant conditioning is based on the work of B. F. Skinner. Operant
conditioning is a form of learning in which the motivation for a
behaviour happens after the behaviour is demonstrated. An animal or a
human receives a consequence after performing a specific behaviour. The
consequence is either a reinforcer or a punisher. All reinforcement
(positive or negative) increases the likelihood of a behavioural
response. All punishment (positive or negative) decreases the
likelihood of a behavioural response. Several types of reinforcement
schedules are used to reward behaviour depending on either a set or
variable period of time.
Question
________ is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop a
behaviour.
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
positive punishment
negative punishment
Check Answer
D
Question
Which of the following is not an example of a primary
reinforcer?
food
money
water
sex
Check Answer
B
Question
Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behaviour is
shaping
extinction
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
Check Answer
A
Question
Slot machines reward gamblers with money according to which
reinforcement schedule?
A Skinner box is an operant conditioning chamber used to train
animals such as rats and pigeons to perform certain behaviours,
like pressing a lever. When the animals perform the desired
behaviour, they receive a reward: food or water.
What is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?
In negative reinforcement you are taking away an undesirable
stimulus in order to increase the frequency of a certain behaviour
(e.g., buckling your seat belt stops the annoying beeping sound in
your car and increases the likelihood that you will wear your
seatbelt). Punishment is designed to reduce a behaviour (e.g., you
scold your child for running into the street in order to decrease
the unsafe behaviour.)
What is shaping and how would you use shaping to teach a dog to
roll over?
Shaping is an operant conditioning method in which you reward
closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviour. If you
want to teach your dog to roll over, you might reward him first
when he sits, then when he lies down, and then when he lies down
and rolls onto his back. Finally, you would reward him only when
he completes the entire sequence: lying down, rolling onto his
back, and then continuing to roll over to his other side.
What type of reinforcement schedule is involved in the development of
superstitious behaviour?
When a reinforcer or punishment is accidentally delivered quickly
after an independent behaviour
(temporal contiguity), superstitious behaviour results.
As a result, the conduct is unintentionally promoted or punished,
which raises the possibility that it will happen again.
For instance, let’s say you step under a ladder, misstep, and fall a moment later.
It is simple to blame your mishap on “poor luck” and the unrelated ladder. The fact that your fall occurred shortly after walking beneath the ladder positively reinforces your cultural idea that doing so will bring bad luck makes it simple for associations to establish.
Explain the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment, and provide several examples of each based on your own experiences.
Think of a behaviour that you have that you would like to change. How could you use behaviour modification, specifically positive reinforcement, to change your behaviour? What is your positive reinforcer?
A young house officer usually attends educational seminars only if there is a post-seminar lunch, or if he knows that there will be a photo session with the chief guest, otherwise, he either gets himself posted at ER on that day or reports sick. Explain the behavior of the house officer according to B.F Skinner’s theory.
What are the schedules of reinforcement?
What reinforcers can you use in clinical settings?
behaviour that is followed by consequences satisfying to the
organism will be repeated and behaviours that are followed by
unpleasant consequences will be discouraged ^
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Explain the prosocial and antisocial effects of observational learning
Previous sections of this chapter focused on classical and operant
conditioning, which are forms of associative learning. In
observational learning, we learn by watching
others and then imitating, or Modelling, what they do or say. The
individuals performing the imitated behaviour are called models.
Research suggests that this imitative learning
involves a specific type of neuron, called a mirror neuron[1][2][3].
Humans and other animals are capable of observational learning. As you
will see, the phrase “monkey see, monkey do” really is accurate
([link]). The same could be said about other
animals. For example, in a study of social learning in chimpanzees,
researchers gave juice boxes with straws to two groups of captive
chimpanzees. The first group dipped the straw into the juice box, and
then sucked on the small amount of juice at the end of the straw. The
second group sucked through the straw directly, getting much more juice.
When the first group, “the dippers,” observed the second group, “the
suckers,” what do you think happened? All of the “dippers” in the first
group switched to sucking through the straws directly. By simply
observing the other chimps and Modelling their behaviour, they learned
that this was a more efficient method of getting juice [4].
Monkey See, Monkey Do!
A photograph shows a person drinking from a water bottle, and a monkey
next to the person drinking water from a bottle in the same manner.
Imitation is much more obvious in humans, but is imitation
really the sincerest form of flattery?
Consider Claire’s experience with observational learning. Claire’s
nine-year-old son, Jay, was getting into trouble at school and was
defiant at home. Claire feared that Jay would end up like her brothers,
two of whom were in prison. One day, after yet another bad day at school
and another negative note from the teacher, Claire, at her wit’s end,
beat her son with a belt to get him to behave. Later that night, as she
put her children to bed, Claire witnessed her four-year-old daughter,
Anna, take a belt to her teddy bear and whip it. Claire was horrified,
realizing that Anna was imitating her mother. It was then that Claire
knew she wanted to discipline her children in a different manner.
Like Tolman, whose experiments with rats suggested a cognitive component
to learning, psychologist Albert Bandura’s ideas about learning were
different from those of strict behaviourists. Bandura and other
researchers proposed a brand of behaviourism called social learning theory,
which took cognitive processes into account. According to
Bandura, pure behaviourism could
not explain why learning can take place in the absence of external
reinforcement. He felt that internal mental states must also have a role
in learning and that observational learning involves much more than
imitation. In imitation, a person simply copies what the model does.
Observational learning is much more complex. According to Lefrançois
(2012) there are several ways that observational learning can occur:
You learn a new response. After watching your coworker get chewed out
by your boss for coming in late, you start leaving home 10 minutes
earlier so that you won’t be late.
You choose whether or not to imitate the model depending on what you
saw happen to the model. Remember Julian and his father? When
learning to surf, Julian might watch how his father pops up
successfully on his surfboard and then attempt to do the same thing.
On the other hand, Julian might learn not to touch a hot stove after
watching his father get burned on a stove.
You learn a general rule that you can apply to other situations.
Bandura identified three kinds of models: live, verbal, and symbolic.
A live model demonstrates a behaviour in person, as when Ben stood up on his surfboard so that Julian could see how he did it.
A verbal instructional model does not perform the behaviour, but instead explains or describes the behaviour, as when a soccer coach tells his young players to kick the ball with the side of the foot, not with the toe.
A symbolic model can be fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, television shows, video games, or Internet sources ([link]).
Photograph A shows a yoga instructor demonstrating a yoga pose while a
group of students observes her and copies the pose. Photo B shows a
child watching television.
See also
Latent learning and Modelling are used all the time in the world of
marketing and advertising. This
commercial played for months across
the New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut areas, Derek Jeter, an
award-winning baseball player for the New York Yankees, is
advertising a Ford. The commercial aired in a part of the country
where Jeter is an incredibly well-known athlete. He is wealthy, and
considered very loyal and good looking. What message are the
advertisers sending by having him featured in the ad? How effective
do you think it is?
Of course, we don’t learn a behaviour simply by observing a model.
Bandura described specific steps in the process of Modelling that must be
followed if learning is to be successful: attention, retention,
reproduction, and motivation:
First, you must be focused on what the model is doing—you have to pay attention.
Next, you must be able to retain, or remember, what you observed; this is retention.
Then, you must be able to perform the behaviour that you observed and committed to memory; this is reproduction.
Finally, you must have motivation.
An illustration that shows the four steps in observational learning.
Bandura described specific steps in the process of Modelling that must be
followed if learning is to be successful: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
You need to want to copy the behaviour, and whether or not you are motivated
depends on what happened to the model. If you saw that the model was
reinforced for her behaviour, you will be more motivated to copy her.
This is known as vicarious reinforcement.
Clinical Correlate: Application of vicarious reinforcement
Vicarious reinforcement may be employed in behaviour therapies for children.
A sibling can be rewarded for a desirable behaviour while the child under treatment is
observing. The reward must be appropriate, eg, praise, and not likely to trigger a tantrum.
On the other hand, if you observed the model being punished, you would be
less motivated to copy her. This is called vicarious punishment.
For example, imagine that four-year-old Allison
watched her older sister Kaitlyn playing in their mother’s makeup, and
then saw Kaitlyn get a time out when their mother came in. After their
mother left the room, Allison was tempted to play in the make-up, but
she did not want to get a time-out from her mother. What do you think
she did? Once you actually demonstrate the new behaviour, the
reinforcement you receive plays a part in whether or not you will repeat
the behaviour.
Bandura researched Modelling behaviour, particularly children’s Modelling
of adults’ aggressive and violent
behaviors [5].
He conducted an experiment with a five-foot inflatable doll that
he called a Bobo doll. In the experiment, children’s aggressive behaviour
was influenced by whether the teacher was punished for her behaviour. In
one scenario, a teacher acted aggressively with the doll, hitting,
throwing, and even punching the doll, while a child watched. There were
two types of responses by the children to the teacher’s behaviour. When
the teacher was punished for her bad behaviour, the children decreased
their tendency to act as she had. When the teacher was praised or
ignored (and not punished for her behaviour), the children imitated what
she did, and even what she said. They punched, kicked, and yelled at the
doll.
See also
Watch this video clip to see a
portion of the famous Bobo doll experiment, including an interview
with Albert Bandura.
What are the implications of this study? Bandura concluded that we watch
and learn, and that this learning can have both prosocial
and antisocial effects.
Prosocial (positive) models can be used to
encourage socially acceptable behaviour. Parents in particular should
take note of this finding. If you want your children to read, then read
to them. Let them see you reading. Keep books in your home. Talk about
your favourite books. If you want your children to be healthy, then let
them see you eat right and exercise, and spend time engaging in physical
fitness activities together. The same holds true for qualities like
kindness, courtesy, and honesty. The main idea is that children observe
and learn from their parents, even their parents’ morals, so be
consistent and toss out the old adage “Do as I say, not as I do,”
because children tend to copy what you do instead of what you say.
Besides parents, many public figures, such as Martin Luther King,
Jr. and Mahatma Gandhi, are viewed as prosocial models who are able to
inspire global social change. Can you think of someone who has been a
prosocial model in your life?
Clinical Correlate: Modelling in Therapy
Modelling is part of exposure technique. Before the patient enters a feared situation,
the therapist models the act while the patient is observing. The patient vicariously
learns that the therapist does not experience negative outcome upon entering the situation.
The antisocial effects of observational learning are also worth
mentioning. As you saw from the example of Claire at the beginning of
this section, her daughter viewed Claire’s aggressive behaviour and
copied it. Research suggests that this may help to explain why abused
children often grow up to be abusers themselves [6].
Clinical Correlate: Child abuse
Children who experience abuse during childhood tend to
be perpetrators of abuse themselves, as adults. Physical abuse during
childhood is a risk factor for conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder.
The underlying mechanism is observational learning.
In fact, about 30% of abused children become abusive
parents (U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, 2013). We tend to
do what we know. Abused children, who grow up witnessing their parents
deal with anger and frustration through violent and aggressive acts,
often learn to behave in that manner themselves. Sadly, it’s a vicious
cycle that’s difficult to break.
Some studies suggest that violent television shows, movies, and video
games may also have antisocial effects
([link]) although further research needs
to be done to understand the correlational and causal aspects of
media violence and behaviour. Some studies have found a link between
viewing violence and aggression seen in children [7][8] (Kirsch, 2010).
These findings may not be surprising, given that a child
graduating from high school has been exposed to around 200,000 violent
acts including murder, robbery, torture, bombings, beatings, and rape
through various forms of media [9]. Not only might
viewing media violence affect aggressive behaviour by teaching people to
act that way in real life situations, but it has also been suggested
that repeated exposure to violent acts also desensitizes people to it.
While researchers are working to understand this dilemma, the more serious
concern with video games is addiction. Based on evidence, addiction to games is now recognised by the
World Health Organization as clinical condition; it is classified under impulse-control disorders in the ICD-11.
Exposure to media violence might contribute to increased aggression, yet it could be the
individual’s tendency towards aggression that they have a greater exposure to media violence.
A genetic predisposition to aggressive behaviour might be the denominator predisposing the individuals
to both aggressive behaviour and a liking for games and movies involving aggression.
See also
View this video to hear Brad
Bushman, a psychologist who has published extensively on human
aggression and violence, discuss his research.
According to Bandura, learning can occur by watching others and then
Modelling what they do or say. This is known as observational learning.
There are specific steps in the process of Modelling that must be
followed if learning is to be successful. These steps include attention,
retention, reproduction, and motivation. Through Modelling, Bandura has
shown that children learn many things both good and bad simply by
watching their parents, siblings, and others.
Question
The person who performs a behavior that serves as an example is
called a ________.
teacher
model
instructor
coach
Check Answer
B
Question
In Bandura’s Bobo doll study, when the children who watched the
aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll and other
toys, they ________.
ignored the doll
played nicely with the doll
played with tinker toys
kicked and threw the doll
Check Answer
D
Question
Which is the correct order of steps in the Modelling process?
What is the effect of prosocial Modelling and antisocial Modelling?
Prosocial Modelling can prompt others to engage in helpful and
healthy behaviors, while antisocial Modelling can prompt others to
engage in violent, aggressive, and unhealthy behaviors.
Cara is 17 years old. Cara’s mother and father both drink alcohol
every night. They tell Cara that drinking is bad and she shouldn’t
do it. Cara goes to a party where beer is being served. What do
you think Cara will do? Why?
Cara is more likely to drink at the party because she has observed
her parents drinking regularly. Children tend to follow what a
parent does rather than what they say.
After an incident of violence in the city, a TV channel contacted you to
record your views on the causes of aggression. What may be the effect
of watching aggression on the viewer’s behaviour?
This is a circular argument. There is evidence for the association of greater
exposure to media violence and increased aggression, but the whether the elevated risk of aggression
and violence is due to the increased exposure to aggression through media is controversial.
It is possible that
exposure to violence through media and aggressive behaviour are both caused by a common
denominator such as genetic predisposition.
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
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Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
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The following are some free practice questions on this chapter.
For answers and explanations, google Psychiatry Question Bank Justpsychiatry.
In which type of learning does a neutral stimulus cause a response?
Classical conditioning
Latent learning
Observational learning
Operant conditioning
Social learning
BCQ
Keeping the principles of conditioning theories in mind, which one
of the following is a stimulus that does not initially cause a response?
Neutral stimulus
Primary reinforcer
Prompt
Secondary reinforcer
Unconditioned stimulus
Considering the principles of conditioning theories, which one
refers to a situation or event that reflexively and automatically
triggers a response?
Motor reflex
Neutral stimulus
Primary reinforcer
Unconditioned reaction
Unconditioned stimulus
A therapist is helping a patient learn social skills. One skill the
therapist wants him to develop is a social smile. He gave him an
exercise to smile every time he greets someone, with the underlying
intention to make him likeable and pleasant. If he does this as
advised, what would be the reinforcement schedule for his social
contacts?
Continuous
Fixed-Interval
Fixed Ratio
Variable-Interval
Variable-Ratio
According to the psychologist who conducted the Bobo doll
experiment, young children can learn by watching other children. Who
founded this type of learning?
Albert Bandura
BF Skinner
Edward Thorndike
John Watson
Pavlov
According to the theory of social learning, which one refers to a
person who can influence people with positive or negative behaviour?
Antisocial Model
Leader
Modeller
Prosocial Model
Role Model
In which one of the following does trial and error learning lead to
an association of stimuli and responses?
Classical conditioning
Latent learning
Observational learning
Operant conditioning
The law of effect
Any response followed by a satisfying situation is likely to be
repeated, while behaviours resulting in an annoying situation are
less likely to occur. Which one of the following does it describe?
Classical conditioning
Latent learning
Observational learning
Operant conditioning
The law of effect
Years after Pavlov described classical conditioning, a theorist
pointed out how classical conditioning explained
automatically-elicited behaviours but not the more complex
voluntarily emitted behaviours. Who was this person?
BF Skinner
Freud
Ivan Pavlov
LL Thurstone
Piaget
Which one of these refers to a relatively stable change in behaviour
due to experience:
Continuation
Development
Learning
Temperament
Trait
From the perspective of learning theories, which one refers to
something in the environment a person can react to or respond to?
Contingency
Reaction
Reinforcer
Response
Stimulus
From the perspective of learning theories, which one refers to
behaviour or reaction to something in the environment?
Consequence
Pairing
Reinforcer
Response
Stimulus
Considering the principles of conditioning theories, which one
refers to an automatic reaction to the unconditioned stimulus?
Conditioned Reaction
Conditioned Response
Primary outcome
Unconditioned Reaction
Unconditioned Response
Which one of the following refers to developing a new response or
learning?
Acquisition
Discrimination
Extinction
Fading
Generalisation
Lessening a learned response:
Acquisition
Discrimination
Extinction
Fading
Generalisation
The famous early physician who, while studying the digestion of
dogs, discovered classical conditioning:
Abraham Maslow
Albert Bandura
BF Skinner
Ivan Pavlov
John Watson
Keeping the learning principles in mind, which one of these refers
to the tendency to emit a similar response to two “almost similar”
stimuli?
Acquisition
Discrimination
Extinction
Generalisation
Indifference
According to this perspective, psychology should be restricted to
studying observable behaviours:
Behaviourism
Cognitive
Freudism
Humanism
Nature v Nurture
According to the principles of operant conditioning, what term is
used for something that happens after the subject emits a behaviour?
#. Consequence
#. Outcome
#. Reinforcement
#. Result
#. Stimuli
Psychologist who developed the principle and techniques of operant
conditioning:
#. BF Skinner
#. Edward Thorndike
#. Ivan Pavlov
#. John Watson
#. Rosalie Rayner
Any consequence that increases the future likelihood of a behaviour:
Reinforcement refers to any consequences that increase the future
likelihood of a behaviour. Punishment always decreases behaviour. When
the results are attained by removing a stimulus, it would be negative
reinforcement or punishment. When the results are attained by adding
something, we call it positive reinforcement or punishment.
Negative punishment
Positive reinforcement
Punishment
*Reinforcement
Unconditioned response
Learning theories
Increasing behaviour by following it with a desirable consequence:
Increasing a behaviour by following it with a desirable outcome is an
example of positive reinforcement. A reinforcement always increases a
behaviour. Punishment decreases behaviour. When we attain the results by
removing a stimulus, it is negative reinforcement or punishment. When
the results are attained by adding something, we call it positive
reinforcement or positive punishment.
Negative Punishment
Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
*Positive Reinforcement
Reinforcement
Learning theories
Increasing behaviour by removing undesirable consequences that is,
taking away what they do not want:
A reinforcement always increases a behaviour. Punishment always
decreases a behaviour. When the results are attained by removal of a
stimulus, etc., it would be negative reinforcement or punishment. When
the results are attained by adding something, we call it positive
reinforcement or punishment.
Avoidance learning
Negative Punishment
*Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Positive Reinforcement
Learning theories
Which one of these best fits “getting paid ten dollars an hour to
stay away from alcohol”?
Staying away from alcohol for an hour leads to positive outcomes. This
exemplifies positive reinforcement. A reinforcer always increases a
behaviour.
Contingent reinforcement
Negative Punishment
*Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Positive Reinforcement
Learning theories
A 20-year-old man with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder
feels distressed to notice anything messy in his room. He has a
habit of cleaning his room to get rid of even slight clutter. This
is an example of:
A messy room creates feelings of distress in this patient. When he
cleans the room, he successfully gets rid of the distress. The behaviour
of cleaning the room removes an unpleasant feeling. Thus, it is negative
reinforcement.
Associative learning
Negative Punishment
*Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Positive Reinforcement
Learning theories
Having to clean up the whole house after argumentation with mother:
Positive punishment.
Escape learning
Negative Punishment
Negative Reinforcement
*Positive punishment
Positive Reinforcement
Learning theories
Having a cell phone privilege taken away after cheating on a test
would be an example of:
Negative punishment
Avoidance learning
*Negative Punishment
Negative Reinforcement
Positive Punishment
Positive Reinforcement
Learning theories
We present consequences within a few seconds to a minute of the
behaviour:
Contingency means the reinforcer should only be available when the
target behaviour has been performed. Immediacy means the reinforcer
should be delivered immediately after the target behaviour.
Reinforcement delayed may not reinforce the target behaviour.
Contingency
Fading
*Immediacy
Reinforcer
Shaping
Learning theories
Something that is learned to have value is a:
A secondary reinforcer, for example, money. It gains value through
classical conditioning but can then be a reinforcer in operant
conditioning.
Artificial reinforcer
Conditioned stimulus
Primary Reinforcer
*Secondary Reinforcer
Unnatural Reinforcer
Learning theories
A reward that follows every time the subject makes the correct
response:
This is continuous reinforcement. It is less resistant to extinction
compared to intermittent reinforcement schedules.
*Continuous reinforcement
Fixed-interval reinforcement
Fixed ratio reinforcement
Partial reinforcement
Serial reinforcement
Learning theories
What is the reinforcement schedule when we reward the correct
response after a set duration of time?
The reinforcement schedule is fixed-interval when the subject receives a
reward after a fixed duration of time.
*Fixed-Interval
Fixed ratio
Interval schedule
Variable-Interval
Variable-Ratio
Learning theories
A child with an intellectual disability has problem behaviours. He
is rewarded for wanted behaviours every 12 hours on average, the
third time he exhibits the wanted behaviour in the specified 12
hours duration of the day. What is the schedule of reinforcement?
Rewards a correct behaviour after an unpredictable amount of time.
Continuous
Fixed-Interval
Fixed Ratio
*Variable-Interval
Variable-Ratio
Learning theories
A parent rewards a child after a certain number of correct
behaviours. What schedule of reinforcement is being utilised?
Fixed ratio.
Continuous
Fixed-Interval
*Fixed Ratio
Variable-Interval
Variable-Ratio
Learning theories
A child is showing tantrums at an increasing frequency. When he
shows such behaviour, his parents’ attention turns toward him,
getting what he wants. What reinforcement schedule are they using?
This is continuous reinforcement. It is less resistant to extinction
compared to intermittent reinforcement schedules.
*Continuous
Fixed-Interval
Fixed Ratio
Variable-Interval
Variable-Ratio
Learning theories
People develop an addiction to Gambling that is difficult to get rid
of because the reinforcement schedule used is:
Variable-ratio.
Continuous
Fixed-Interval
Fixed Ratio
Variable-Interval
*Variable-Ratio
Learning theories
The process by which a stimulus or an event follows a behaviour
increases the probability of the behaviour happening again. This
best defines:
The best answer would be c) reinforcement.
Incubation
Punishment
*Reinforcement
Reinforcer
Shaping
Learning theories
These are inherently desirable and do not acquire reinforcing value
through experience:
The best answer would be d) primary unconditioned reinforcers. Primary
unconditioned reinforcers: Inherently desirable and do not acquire
reinforcing value through experience. For example, food. Generalised
secondary reinforcers: Acquire reinforcing value through their
association with a primary reinforcer. For example, a token reinforces
because it is associated with a naturally reinforcing stimulus.
Generalised secondary reinforcers
Natural reinforcers
Primary conditioned reinforcers
*Primary unconditioned reinforcers
Tertiary unconditioned reinforcers
Learning theories
These acquire reinforcing value through their association with a
primary reinforcer:
The best answer would be a) generalised secondary reinforcers. Primary
unconditioned reinforcers: Inherently desirable and do not acquire
reinforcing value through experience, for example, food. Generalised
secondary reinforcers: Acquire reinforcing value through their
association with a primary reinforcer. For example, a token is
reinforcing because it is associated with a naturally reinforcing
stimulus.
*Generalised secondary reinforcers
Natural reinforcers
Primary conditioned reinforcers
Primary unconditioned reinforcers
Tertiary unconditioned reinforcers
Learning theories
Adding a positive stimulus to increase behaviour or providing
something pleasant, for example, receiving a gold star for a good
piece of homework:
The best answer would be d) positive reinforcement.
Negative punishment
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
*Positive reinforcement
Shaping behaviour
Learning theories
Taking away a negative stimulus to increase behaviour or taking away
something unpleasant which in turn strengthens the behaviour:
Negative reinforcement.
Negative punishment
*Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Positive reinforcement
Shaping behaviour
Learning theories
Add negative stimulus to decrease behaviour or provide something
unpleasant, for example, writing lines for not doing homework. This
would best describe:
The best answer would be positive punishment. In terms of operant
conditioning, punishment always leads to a decrease in behaviour. When
we achieve the said result by adding a stimulus, it would be positive
punishment, while negative punishment occurs when removing an aversive
stimulus.
Negative punishment
Negative reinforcement
*Positive punishment
Positive reinforcement
Shaping behaviour
Learning theories
Removing a positive stimulus to decrease behaviour or taking away
something pleasant, for example, losing lunch break for not doing
homework. This best describes:
The best answer would be a) negative punishment. In terms of operant
conditioning, anything decreasing a behaviour is a punishment. A
reinforcement always leads to an increased likelihood of the behaviour.
“Positive” refers to applying a stimulus, while “Negative” means
withholding or removing a stimulus. A reinforcer always increases the
probability or intensity of a response occurring. Punishment decreases
the probability of or prevents a response from occurring.
*Negative punishment
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Positive reinforcement
Shaping behaviour
Learning theories
A 30-year-old man presents to you in the outpatient department for
the treatment of withdrawal symptoms due to the use of opioids. He
reports experiencing severe aches and pains and other such symptoms
every time he stops using the opioid. Because of this, he would rush
to find his next dose. The best explanation for the patient’s long
term opioid use would be:
The best answer would be c) negative reinforcement. Using opioids would
provide him relief from the painful symptoms, because of which he would
use opioids again. The removal of the adverse experience caused an
increased likelihood of behaviour. However, positive punishment also
plays some role; the decreased likelihood of “not using opioids” was
caused by the aversive symptoms of withdrawal.
Classical conditioning
Negative punishment
*Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Shaping behaviour
Learning theories
While training a dog to identify thieves, a trainer gives food to
the dog each time he correctly identifies the subject. What
reinforcement schedule is taking place?
The best answer would be a) continuous reinforcement. Schedules of
reinforcement refer to specific patterns that determine when a behaviour
will be reinforced. Continuous reinforcement takes place when
reinforcement occurs every time. It is the most efficient way to help
acquisition. Intermittent reinforcement occurs when not every instance
of behaviour is reinforced. There are four intermittent reinforcement
schedules: fixed-interval, variable-interval, fixed-ratio, and
variable-ratio.
*Continuous reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedule
Fixed ratio schedule
Habituation
Intermittent reinforcement
Learning theories
Humans develop phobias of snakes, but not phobias of weapons like
sharp razors. What best explains this?
Preparedness refers to the predisposition of a species to specific ways
of conditioning. For example, humans may develop a phobia of snakes, but
not knives. Martin Seligman considers this adaptive for humans in an
evolutionary perspective; developing fears and phobias to environmental
threats helps survival. The concept also explains conditioned taste
aversion among humans.
Habituation
Latent learning
Observational learning
*Preparedness
Stimulus discrimination
Learning theories
Which one of these refers to the circumstances determining whether
responses cause the presentation of reinforcers?
In their most basic form, reinforcement contingencies include
antecedents (events that occur immediately before a behaviour),
responses or behaviours, and consequences (events that occur immediately
after a behaviour). We refer to the link between these occurrences as
“contingency.” and to the consequences that increase the likelihood of
the behaviour occurring again in comparable circumstances as
“reinforcement.” As a result, contingencies of reinforcement explain an
antecedent-behaviour-consequence relationship, in which the consequence
enhances the chance of a behaviour occurring again in the presence of an
antecedent.
Law of effect
Operant principles
Primack principles
*Reinforcement contingencies
Reinforcement schedules
Learning theories
A child is brought to you for assessment of problem behaviours. The
mother gives him a toffee to calm him down whenever he cries. This
happens after a specified number of responses or after a variable
amount of time. What type of reinforcement is happening?
The best answer would be intermittent reinforcement.
Continuous reinforcement
*Intermittent reinforcement
Interval schedule
Non-contingent reinforcement
Ratio schedule
Learning theories
Involves a specific number of behaviours to be performed before the
reward is given:
The best answer would be a fixed ratio schedule.
Continuous reinforcement
Fixed-interval schedule
*Fixed ratio schedule
Habituation
Intermittent reinforcement
Learning theories
Which reinforcement schedule occurs when the subject experiences
reinforcement for a response emitted after equal intervals?
It occurs when we reinforce behaviour after a set time has passed. The
best answer would be b) a fixed-interval schedule.
Continuous reinforcement
*a fixed-interval schedule
Fixed ratio schedule
Habituation
Intermittent reinforcement
Learning theories
In which reinforcement schedule is reinforcement given for a
response after a variable interval of time?
Reinforcement is given for a response after a variable interval in the
variable-interval schedule. Steady but relatively low level of response.
This occurs when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of
time has passed. Ex: delivering a food pellet to a rat after the first
bar press following a 1-minute, 5 minutes, then 3-minute interval.
Continuous reinforcement
Fixed ratio schedule
Habituation
Intermittent reinforcement
*Variable-interval schedule
Learning theories
We give reinforcement after a fixed number of responses. This would
be:
The best answer would be b) a fixed ratio schedule. Reinforces after a
set number of behaviours. Relatively High, steady rate of responding. A
response is reinforced only after a given number of responses, such as
delivering a food pellet to a rat after pressing a bar five times.
Continuous reinforcement
*Fixed ratio schedule
Habituation
Intermittent reinforcement
Variable-interval schedule
Learning theories
Behaviour is rewarded an average number of times but is not
predictable:
The best answer would be e) variable-ratio schedule. Reinforcement
happens after a variable number of responses. It has the highest rate of
responding and is most resistant to extinction. The response is
reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses, for example
delivering food pellets to a rat after one bar press, again after 4 bar
presses, and two bar presses.
Continuous reinforcement
Habituation
Intermittent reinforcement
Variable-interval schedule
*Variable-ratio schedule
Learning theories
A parent gives a child a bar of chocolate whenever he has washed his
hands the first time following a one-hour interval, then during a
five-hour interval, then during a three-hour interval. What is the
schedule of reinforcement?
The best answer would be d) variable-interval. Behaviour is reinforced
after a variable amount of time has elapsed. Steady but relatively low
level of response. This occurs when a response is rewarded after an
unpredictable amount of time has passed. Ex: delivering a food pellet to
a rat after the first bar press following a 1-minute interval, 5
minutes, then 3-minute interval.
Intermittent
Mixed interval-ratio
Non-contingent
*Variable-interval
Variable-ratio
Learning theories
A toffee should only be available when the child has been calm for a
specific amount of time. This is:
Contingency: The reinforcer should only be available when the target
behaviour has been performed. Immediacy: The reinforcer should be
delivered immediately after the target behaviour. Reinforcement delayed
may not reinforce the target behaviour.
*Contingency
Extinction
Immediacy
Shaping
Stimulus discrimination
Learning theories
The child should be given a toffee immediately after he has washed
his face. This is:
Contingency: The reinforcer should only be available when the target
behaviour has been performed. Immediacy: The reinforcer should be
delivered immediately after the target behaviour. Reinforcement delayed
may not reinforce the target behaviour.
Contingency
Extinction
*Immediacy
Shaping
Thinning
Learning theories
The change from a continuous to intermittent reinforcement schedule
once the behaviour is well-established reduces the proportion of
reinforcement to the target behaviour. This is most likely:
The best answer would be e) thinning of contingency schedule.
Contingency
Extinction
Immediacy
Shaping
*Thinning of schedule
Learning theories
Which one of these refers to the process by which consequences lead
to a greater probability that the response will re-occur:
According to skinner, reinforcement occurs when a consequence
strengthens a response, indicated by an increase in the rate of
responding.
Acquisition
Association
Conditioning
Law of effect
*Reinforcement
Learning theories
Which one refers to an object or event following a response that
alters the chances of its recurrence?
The best answer would be reinforcer.
Consequence
Contingency
Outcome
Punisher
*Reinforcer
Learning theories
The gradual process of reinforcing an organism for behaviour that
gets closer to the desired behaviour:
Shaping
Contingency
Reinforcement schedule
*Shaping of behaviour
Stimulus discrimination
Stimulus generalisation
Learning theories
A reward is withheld from a previously reinforced behaviour to
eliminate or decrease that behaviour. There is a gradual reduction
in the frequency and intensity of the response. This would be most
likely:
The best answer would be operant extinction. The gradual reduction in
the frequency and intensity of a response due to the elimination of a
rewarding
Avoidance conditioning
Behavioural contrast
Classical extinction
Extinction burst
*Operant extinction
Learning theories
A reward is withheld from a previously reinforced behaviour to
eliminate or decrease that behaviour. There is a gradual reduction
in the frequency or intensity of response. However, at times, there
is a temporary increase in responses. This is most likely due to:
Extinction burst.
Behavioural contrast
Escape learning
*Extinction burst
Fading
Prompts
Learning theories
When two different behaviours are reinforced, and then the
reinforcement of one behaviour is withdrawn to extinguish it, the
other behaviour is likely to increase:
Thinning of reinforcement schedule: The change from a continuous to
intermittent reinforcement schedule once the behaviour is
well-established, then reducing the proportion of reinforcement to
target behaviour. Behavioural contrast: When two different
behaviours are reinforced, and the reinforcement of one behaviour is
withdrawn to extinguish it, the other is likely to increase.
*Behavioural contrast
Fading
Law of effect
Shaping
Thinning
Learning theories
Which one of the following reinforcement schedules occurs while a
person develops superstitious behaviour?
Accidental, non-contingent reinforcement. Reinforcement is not tied to
any behaviour. Odd, ritualistic behaviour: Behaviours that the person
was engaging in just before the non-contingent behaviour
Continuous
Fixed ratio
*Non-contingent
Variable-interval
Variable-ratio
Learning theories
A 30-year-old man presented to you with fear of distance from home.
The patient says he had panic attacks while he was away from home,
which terrified him, as he could not get any help. Now he stays
close to home to avoid such situations again. What would best
explain his confinement to home?
The best answer would be a) avoidance learning. Behaviours that are
maintained by negative reinforcement. Escape behaviour is a two-factor
form of learning (the organism learns to identify a stimulus that
signals the initiation of an aversive stimulus). If the organism
performs the target behaviour in the presence of a cue, the organism can
escape the negative reinforcer. Two factors = discrimination learning
(cue) and avoidance or escape learning. In avoidance learning, a subject
starts emitting a response that prevents them from an aversive stimulus.
In escape learning, the subject emits a response that diminishes or puts
an end to an aversive stimulus.
*Avoidance learning
Escape learning
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Stimulus discrimination
Learning theories
Verbal or physical reinforcements that help the acquisition of the
target behaviour:
The best answer would prompt. Prompts are verbal or physical
reinforcements that help the acquisition of the target behaviour.
Fading refers to the elimination of the prompts gradually.
Shaping: rewarding behaviours that approximate the target
behaviour—behaviours come closer to the target. Chaining:
Developing a chain/sequence of behaviours in which each subsequent
behaviour is contingent on what came before.
Fading
Modelling
*Prompts
Reinforcers
Shaping
Learning theories
The gradual removal of the verbal or physical reinforcements which
are given to help the acquisition of target behaviours in the
beginning is:
The best answer would be fading. Fading refers the elimination of
the prompts gradually. Shaping: rewarding behaviours that approximate
the target behaviour—behaviours come closer to the target. Chaining:
Developing a chain/sequence of behaviours in which each subsequent
behaviour is contingent on what came before.
Chaining
Extinction
*Fading
Modelling
Shaping
Learning theories
Rewarding behaviours that increasingly approximate the target
behaviour:
Prompts are verbal or physical reinforcements that help the
acquisition of the target behaviour. Fading refers to the
elimination of the prompts gradually. Shaping: rewarding behaviours
that approximate the target behaviour—behaviours come closer to the
target. Chaining: Developing a chain/sequence of behaviours in which
each subsequent behaviour is contingent on what came before. The best
answer would be e) shaping.
Chaining
Extinction
Fading
Modelling
*Shaping
Learning theories
Developing a sequence of behaviours in which each subsequent
behaviour is contingent on what came before:
Prompts are verbal or physical reinforcements that help gain the
target behaviour. Fading refers the elimination of the prompts
gradually. Shaping: rewarding behaviours that approximate the target
behaviour—behaviours come closer to the target. Chaining:
Developing a chain/sequence of behaviours in which each subsequent
behaviour is contingent on what came before. The best answer would be a)
Chaining.
*Chaining
Extinction
Fading
Modelling
Shaping
Learning theories
A therapeutic technique used for behavioural symptoms in patients
with dementia combines positive reinforcement with extinction such
that between two competing responses, we reward one behaviour while
ignoring the other. This is called:
Differential reinforcement: Combining positive reinforcement with
extinction. Reward one of the two competing responses. Reward one
behaviour while ignoring the other behaviour. The law of effect: Any
response followed by a satisfying situation is more likely to be
repeated. Behaviours resulting in an annoying situation is less likely
to occur. Primack principle: A high probability behaviour reinforces a
low-probability behaviour. Ex. Video game-playing (high probability
behaviour), working on the dissertation (low-probability behaviour) -
playing a video game after 1 hour of dissertation work
Behavioural contrast
Chaining
*Differential reinforcement
Law of effect
Primack principle
Learning theories
Because of problem behaviours, a mother brought her 5-year-old child
with an intellectual disability. Which reinforcement schedule would
be most suitable for the quickest response?
The best answer would be a) continuous. The establishment of new
behaviour is most rapid with continuous reinforcement, administered
after every desired or correct response. It is the most efficient
reinforcement schedule for a new response and is the quickest to produce
extinction. Maintenance of the target behaviour is maximised with an
intermittent schedule of reinforcement.
*Continuous
Fixed-interval
Fixed ratio
Variable-interval
Variable-ratio
Learning theories
Which one of these are effective because they are classically
conditioned with primary reinforcers?
The best answer would be a secondary reinforcer. Primary reinforcer: any
reinforcer naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need,
such as hunger. Secondary reinforcers are effective almost like primary
reinforcers because they are classically conditioned with primary
reinforcers. For example, money, which is a secondary reinforcer, is
associated with primary reinforcers, such as foods and drinks, clothes
and so on.
Associative reinforcers
Conditioned reinforcers
Generalised reinforcers
Primary reinforcers
*Secondary reinforcers
Learning theories
Which one refers to reinforcing a non-preferred activity with a help
of a preferred one?
The Premack principle is that a preferred activity can help reinforce a
non-preferred one. For example, eating a favourite food after
successfully studying for set duration. The Overjustification effect
occurs when external rewards weaken the intrinsic satisfaction of
performing a behaviour. For example, getting paid for writing may cause
the writer to lose motivation writing without getting paid. The best
answer would be the Premack principle.
Chaining
Contingency
Law of effect
Overjustification effect
*Premack principle
Learning theories
A person lost motivation to write articles as hobby after receiving
monetary rewards writing for a newspaper for year. Before he worked
for the newspaper, he would write as a hobby. Which best explains
this?
The Overjustification effect occurs when external rewards weaken the
intrinsic satisfaction of performing a behaviour. For example, getting
paid for writing may cause the writer to lose motivation writing without
getting paid. The Premack principle is that a preferred activity can
help reinforce a non-preferred one. For example, eating a favourite food
after successfully studying for set duration. The best answer would be
d) Overjustification effect.
Chaining
Contingency
Law of effect
*Overjustification effect
Primack principle
Learning theories
A 40-year-old man was detoxified from heroin use in the drug
detoxification ward. However, when he went back to the company of
his friends, he felt an extreme desire to retake the drug. Which one
of these would best explain this?
The best answer would be a) classical conditioning. The company of
friends is associated with these feelings due to long-term pairing with
heroin use. Cue-exposure therapy is one type that helps the extinction
of such associations.
*Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus discrimination
Stimulus generalisation
Learning theories
A 30-year-old woman develops non-epileptic fits when she her mother
scolded her. Later, her mother gave her excessive attention and
care. Gradually, her symptoms worsened, and she started to develop
fits more often even on experiencing minor stress. What best
explains this?
Stress may be associated with the fits and so classical conditioning may
be at work; however, the most obvious factor here is the excessive
attention and care from the mother which acts as a reinforcer.
Classical conditioning
Negative punishment
Negative reinforcement
*Positive reinforcement
Stimulus generalisation
Learning theories
A 35-year-old woman is admitted to the hospital with pain in various
parts of the body. Her pain increases in the presence of doctors,
and she starts shouting with pain when doctors surround her. What
best explains this?
The best answer would be positive reinforcement. Doctors may
inadvertently reinforce such behaviours by attending to patients
shouting with pain. Some patients learn to shout to have the doctor’s
attention.
Classical conditioning
Negative punishment
Negative reinforcement
*Positive reinforcement
Stimulus discrimination
Learning theories
For which one of these is John Broadus Watson known?
John Broadus Watson was psychologist well-known as the father of
behaviourism. The best answer would be behaviourism.
*Behaviourism
Functionalism
Mechanism
Rationalism
Structuralism
Learning theories
A 30-year-old man is admitted to your ward for the assessment of
refractory depression. During the assessment, he reveals that
poverty is his fate. He will not start any work because he failed
every time he took the initiative. He is showing:
The best answer would be learned helplessness.
Attributional deficits
Cognitive dissonance
*Learned helplessness
Self-actualisation attributes
The fight-or-flight response
Learning theories
An infant identifies his father’s voice. A college student is no
more awakened by his roommate’s typewriting late-night. A kitten
avoids a couch after being punished for sitting on it. A rat learns
to press a tiny rod for food when a green light flashes. A motorist
drives at the speed limit when there is a police officer in sight on
the highway. Which one of these exemplifies the concept of
habituation?
The best answer would be, college student.
*College student
Infant
Kitten
motorist
Rat
Learning theories
Among the reinforcement schedules, which one is most resistant to
extinction?
The best answer would be e) variable-ratio.
Fixed-interval
Fixed ratio
Non-contingent
Shaping
*Variable-ratio
Learning theories
Mike receives five dollars each time he wakes up in the morning
without having a wet bed. Sam experiences nausea every time he uses
alcohol while being on disulfiram. Lindsay gets candy from mother
when she has been calm for one hour. Jack, rewards son for sitting
quietly for ten minutes during week one, 15 minutes during week two,
20 minutes during week four, 25 minutes during week five. A rat
receives a mild shock each time it tries to open the door of its
cage. Which of these would be the best example of shaping?
The best answer would be Jack, who rewards son for sitting quietly for
ten minutes during week one, 15 minutes during week two, 20 minutes
during week four, 25 minutes during week five. Shaping: rewarding
behaviours that approximate the target behaviour—behaviours come
closer and closer to the target behaviour.
*Jack
Lindsay
Mike
Rat
Sam
Learning theories
For extinction to occur, which of the following must be true of the
conditioned response (CR), the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)? Case 1: The CR occurs after the CS but
does not occur after other stimuli. Case 2: The CR occurs after a
stimulus that is similar to the CS. Case 3: The CS and the UCS are
repeatedly paired, and the CR gains strength. Case 4: The CS is
repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS, and the CR loses
strength. Case 5: When the CR loses strength, a rest period is
given, after which the CS again elicits the CR.
The best answer would be Case 4.
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
*Case 4
Case 5
Learning theories
Experiment 1: Blindfolding someone to see how long he takes to find
a coin hidden in a room. Experiment 2: Deciding how long it takes a
person to learn how to perform progressive muscle relaxation after
watching videos. Experiment 3: Applying bitter nail polish to nails
of children with nail-biting and finding how long it will take
before nail-biting becomes undesirable. Experiment 5: Rewarding a
boy that has nocturnal enuresis for dry nights with star charts and
determining its effectiveness. Which one utilised classical
conditioning?
The best answer would be experiment 3. The experiment involves both
classical and operant conditioning.
Experiment 1
Experiment 2
*Experiment 3
Experiment 4
Experiment 5
Learning theories
According to the learning theory of Albert Bandura:
The best answer would be b) learning occurs by watching others. Albert
Bandura described observational learning, which is learning by observing
others. Condition occurs vicarious, Bandura identified four key
processes that are crucial in observational learning: attention,
retention, reproduction and motivation. The first two—attention and
retention—highlight the importance of cognition in this type of
learning.
Cognitive function is not important to learning
Learning can occur by *watching others
Learning is purely vicarious
Learning occurs subconsciously
Motivation is the first step in learning
Learning theories
What did Rosalie Rayner and John Watson demonstrate with their
experiments on Little Albert?
They showed how fear can be a conditioned response by associating a
white rat with a loud noise. Albert developed a fear of rats after
several pairings. Later, he also developed a fear of other white furry
things that resembled the rat.
Emotion can be a conditioned *response
Extinction can occur with exposure
Fear cannot be a conditioned response
Phobias occur because of displacement
Stimulus discrimination is central to fear
Learning theories
On your advice, a mother of a 10-year-old child with an intellectual
disability praised him every time he washed his hands. This is:
The best answer would be a) continuous reinforcement, in which every
instance of behaviour is reinforced.
*Continuous reinforcement
Fixed ratio schedule
Primary reinforcement
Shaping behaviour
Stimulus acquisition
Learning theories
A person has an allergy to pollen. He sneezes on exposure to pollen.
However, during spring he often sneezes even when there is no pollen
around. Sneezing on exposure to pollen is:
The best answer would be an unconditioned response.
Conditioned response
Conditioned stimulus
Primary reinforcer
*Unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus
Learning theories
A person eats some street food for breakfast and then spend the
morning at an amusement park. After a few hours later, he feels
nauseous and regurgitates the food. The next she is passing by the
same street food, he feels nauseated. What best explains this?
The best answer would be a) classical conditioning. Conditioned taste
aversion occurs even if the aversive stimuli are not occurring at the
same time. Humans are ready to develop such associations easily.
*Classical conditioning
Higher-order learning.
Latent learning
Observational learning
Operant conditioning
Learning theories
In operant conditioning, what describes adding something to decrease
the likelihood of behaviour?
The best answer would be e) punishment.
Acquisition
Discrimination
Negative reinforcement
Operant extinction
*Punishment
Learning theories
A mother is trying to condition a child to greet her when she comes
home. Every time she comes home from her work, she presents the
child with a gift. The mother noted him greeting her in the past
three days. This is:
The best answer would be a) acquisition.
*Acquisition
Discrimination
Extinction
Priming
Shaping
Learning theories
Which term best describes rewarding successive approximations of a
target behaviour?
Shaping is a technique based on operant conditioning that comprises
slowly molding the behaviour by reinforcing responses that are
increasingly closer to the desired behaviour. By rewarding behaviours
that approximate the target behaviour, responses get increasingly
similar to the target behaviour. (Powell, Symbaluk, & Honey)
Acquisition
Fading
Learning
Reinforcement
*Shaping
Learning theories
Seeing a model being punished and then becoming less likely to
imitate the model’s behaviour happen through:
Vicarious punishment
Latent acquisition
Latent punishment
Positive punishment
Vicarious punishment
*Vicarious reinforcement
Learning theories
A drug user receives money every day when he stays off of heroine as
a part of his contingency-based therapy. Which reinforcement
schedule is this?
The best answer would be b) fixed-interval. The reinforcement occurs
after a fixed-interval of time.
Continuous
*Fixed-interval
Fixed ratio
Variable-interval
Variable-ratio
Learning theories
Which of the following is an example of instinct?
Instinct is unlearned knowledge that involves complex patterns of
behaviour. The best answer would be a) baby seeking food by rooting and
suckling
Baby seeking food by rooting *and suckling
Being able to guess the right answer
Believing that nudity is wrong
Teacher demonstrating algebra to students
Toddler who is toilet training
Learning theories
A young girl watches her mother lock herself in a room, whenever she
argues with someone. When the girl grows older, she starts to
exhibit the same behaviour whenever she is displeased by someone.
This exemplifies:
The best answer would be observational learning. In observational
learning, vicarious conditioning occurs.
Gene-environment interaction
Instinct
Latent learning
*Observational learning
Operant learning
Learning theories
Considering the principles of operant conditioning, when something
aversive is removed to increase the likelihood of behaviour, it is
called:
The best answer would be c) negative reinforcement.
Contingency
*Negative punishment
Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Positive reinforcement
Learning theories
A naive opioid user watches his peer group injecting heroin with a
shared needle. Initially, he is afraid of the consequences, however,
he sees his peers doing the same repeatedly over time without
noticeable consequences. The patient then starts injections with
shared needles. What type of learning is this?
The best answer would be d) observational learning.
Classical
Conditioning
Latent learning
*Observational
Operant
Learning theories
Linda experiences fear on seeing a specific lizard. John is afraid
only seeing a brown lizard. Mike is afraid of seeing any lizard. Sam
experienced fear when a lizard drops over his head. Lindsay reports
previous fear on seeing a lizard is now lost. Which of these occurs
because of stimulus generalisation?
The best answer would be Mike.
John
Linda
Lindsay
*Mike
Sam
Learning theories
Which of the following statements best represent the work of Ivan
Pavlov?
The best answer would be e) he established the principles of classical
conditioning. Pavlov was a Russian physiologist (not psychologist) who
observed classical conditioning while experimenting on dogs.
He demonstrated the principles of operant conditioning
He described the principles of observational learning
He designed behavioural therapies
He established the principles *of classical conditioning
He is considered the founder of behaviourism
Learning theories
In classical conditioning, associative learning occurs between:
The best answer would be d) neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned response
Conditioned stimulus and neutral response
Neutral response and a conditioned response
*Neutral stimulus and a neutral response
Neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus
Learning theories
A child tells a lie and is deprived of pocket money that day by his
mother. He does this several times, finally learning that speaking
a lie would deprive him from pocket money for the day. Which kind
of learning is this?
The best answer would be e) operant conditioning. More specifically,
this is negative punishment; that is, deprivation from a privilege to
decrease a behaviour, that is speaking lies.
Classical conditioning
Latent learning
Modelling
Observational learning
*Operant conditioning
Learning theories
A mother deprives a child of his pocket money whenever he does not
complete his homework assignment on time. The child starts
requesting his mother starts crying and continues to an extent of
unbearable annoyance to get his pocket money. Eventually, his
mother is annoyed and changes her decision. The mother is
experiencing:
The best answer would be negative reinforcement. The child’s annoyance
is the aversive stimulus, when she gives pocket money to the child, this
aversive stimulus is removed.
Negative punishment
*Negative reinforcement
Positive punishment
Positive reinforcement
Reciprocal determinism
Learning theories
Which of the following is best exemplifies the process of
observational learning?
Practicing yoga after watching yoga. Latent learning may also happen
while simply watching yoga, but that does not include the other steps of
observational learning.
Learning exercise in a gym
Learning to speak German in class
Observing written German to learn reading it
*Practicing on yoga after watching yoga
Watching a yoga group in the park
Learning theories
A dog is being trained based on the principle of classical
conditioning, the initial period of learning is known as:
The best answer would be a) acquisition, which refers to the initial
learning phase in conditioning.
*Acquisition
Latent learning
Primary conditioning
Stimulus discrimination
Stimulus generalisation
Learning theories
What was the major flaw with John B. Watson’s Little Albert
experiment?
The best answer would be a) it is unethical for a researcher to induce
fear in a child. (Watson & Rayner) (Fridlund, Beck, Goldie, & Irons,
2012)
* Inducing fear in a child is unethical
Little Albert was much older than Watson reported
Subjectivity was involved
Watson did not consent Little Albert’s mother
Watson falsified most of his data
# Bibliography
Fridlund, A. J., Beck, H. P., Goldie, W. D., & Irons, G. (2012). Little
Albert: A neurologically impaired child. *History of Psychology, 15*(4).
Retrieved 3 8, 2022, from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-01974-001
McSweeney, F. K., & Murphy, E. S. (2014). The Wiley Blackwell Handbook
of Operant and Classical Conditioning. John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved 3
9, 2022
Watson, J., & Rayner, R. (n.d.). Classics in the History of Psychology
– Watson & Rayner (1920). *Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3*(1).
Retrieved 3 8, 2022, from
http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
The following questions are designed to test your comprehension and ability to apply
your knowledge of learning theories to the clinical practice.
For answers and explanations, google Justpsychiatry Question Bank.
Short-Answer Question
A mother of 7-year-old boy told her GP that her boy shouts at the top of his voice
whenever she does not meet his demand. Gradually his demands are increasing.
She told that yesterday he woke up at 5 am. started shouting and demanded that
he wants to eat Pizza. To pacify him she had to take him to a Pizza outlet at the
airport as no outlet was open in the vicinity at this time.
The child on clinical examination was of above-average intelligence and was
not suffering from any physical or mental disorder.
Based on your knowledge of behavioral psychology, briefly write the behaviour
of the child and what measures you will suggest to her mother?
Short-Answer Question
A ten-year-old boy is brought with a history of refusing to go to school every morning.
He starts to feel abdominal pain whenever he sees the school bag.
His mother starts to shout at him, the father beats him up.
Initially, the boy started to go to school as a result of his parental reaction
and then stopped going to school.
What are the various types of learning theories that are playing a role in this scenario?
List four learning techniques that you may employ to improve the behaviour of the child.
Short-Answer Question
A 27-year-old man has been arrested by the police for hitting, cursing at, and verbally berating his wife of 8 years. The wife tells the police he also regularly physically whips his 7-year-old son with a leather belt and often strikes the boy with his hand. When asked why he does this, he responds that this is “how my father treated me, it’s how men should act.”
This represents which type of learning?
How it happens?
Does it involve reinforcement?
Give an example.
Short-Answer Question
After an incident of violence in the city, a TV channel contacted you to record your views on the causes of aggression.
What would be your response regarding the effect of watching aggression on the viewer’s behaviour?
Short-Answer Question
A patient with chronic schizophrenia in a long-stay ward of a mental hospital started
showing disruptive behaviour since a new staff nurse took charge of the ward.
He continuously shouts on the top of his voice till the staff nurse gives him
a cigarette to pacify him. This behaviour was occasional at the beginning but gradually increased.
How will you explain this behaviour and
what you will recommend to unlearn this behaviour?
Can we use punishment in behaviour therapy?
Short-Answer Question
A 21-year-old male comes to the OPD and states his problem,
“I have been trying to resist the thought that my hands are contaminated,
but I always end up in washing my hands.
My mother has always appreciated me for this habit of cleanliness.
Now the problem has got worsened.
I have tried to fight my habit and have broken glasses and cups in anger and frustration.
Sometimes I weep like a child at my failure.
When nothing worked, I lost all hope and I have now stopped studying.”
Identify the underlying learning processes.
Briefly define the silent features of the respective psychological theories
with which the behaviour patterns of the patient and the mother can be explained.
Short-Answer Question
A ten-year-old boy is brought with a history of refusing to go to school every morning.
He starts to feel abdominal pain whenever he sees the school bag.
His mother starts to shout at him, the father beats him up.
Initially, the boy started to go to school as a result of his parental reaction
and then stopped going to school.
What are the various types of learning processes that are playing a role in this scenario?
List four learning techniques that you may employ to improve the behaviour of the child.
Short-Answer Question
A 27-year-old man has been arrested by the police for hitting, cursing at, and verbally berating his wife of 8 years.
The wife tells the police he also regularly physically whips his 7-year-old son with a leather belt and often strikes the boy with his hand.
When asked why he does this, he responds that this is “how my father treated me, it’s how men should act.”
This represents which type of learning?
How it happens?
c. Does it involve reinforcement?
e. Give an example.
Short-Answer Question
How would you differentiate Watson’s behaviourism from classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Why is it so difficult to break habits—like reaching for your ringing
phone even when you shouldn’t, such as when you’re driving? How does a
person who has never seen or touched snow in real life develop an
understanding of the concept of snow? How do young children acquire the
ability to learn language with no formal instruction? Psychologists who
study thinking explore questions like these.
Cognitive psychologists also study intelligence. What is intelligence,
and how does it vary from person to person? Are “street smarts” a kind
of intelligence, and if so, how do they relate to other types of
intelligence? What does an IQ test really measure? These questions and
more will be explored in this chapter as you study thinking and
intelligence.
In other chapters, we discussed the cognitive processes of perception,
learning, and memory. In this chapter, we will focus on high-level
cognitive processes. As a part of this discussion, we will consider
thinking and briefly explore the development and use of language. We
will also discuss problem solving and creativity before ending with a
discussion of how intelligence is measured and how our biology and
environments interact to affect intelligence. After finishing this
chapter, you will have a greater appreciation of the higher-level
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Wechsler, D. (2002 ). WPPSI-R manual. New York: Psychological
Corporation.
Werker, J. F., & Lalonde, C. E. (1988). Cross-language speech
perception: Initial capabilities and developmental change.
Developmental Psychology, 24, 672–683.
Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (1984). Cross-language speech perception:
Evidence for perceptual reorganization during the first year of life.
Infant Behavior and Development, 7, 49–63.
Whorf, B. L. (1956). Language, thought and relativity. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press.
Williams, R. L., (1970). Danger: Testing and dehumanizing black
children. Clinical Child Psychology Newsletter, 9(1), 5–6.
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe
cognition * Distinguish concepts and prototypes * Explain the
difference between natural and artificial concepts
Imagine all of your thoughts as if they were physical entities, swirling
rapidly inside your mind. How is it possible that the brain is able to
move from one thought to the next in an organized, orderly fashion? The
brain is endlessly perceiving, processing, planning, organizing, and
remembering—it is always active. Yet, you don’t notice most of your
brain’s activity as you move throughout your daily routine. This is only
one facet of the complex processes involved in cognition. Simply put,
cognition is thinking, and it encompasses the
processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving,
judgment, language, and memory. Scientists who study cognition are
searching for ways to understand how we integrate, organize, and utilize
our conscious cognitive experiences without being aware of all of the
unconscious work that our brains are doing (for example, Kahneman,
2011).
Upon waking each morning, you begin thinking—contemplating the tasks
that you must complete that day. In what order should you run your
errands? Should you go to the bank, the cleaners, or the grocery store
first? Can you get these things done before you head to class or will
they need to wait until school is done? These thoughts are one example
of cognition at work. Exceptionally complex, cognition is an essential
feature of human consciousness, yet not all aspects of cognition are
consciously experienced.
Cognitive psychology{: data-type=“term”} is the field of
psychology dedicated to examining how people think. It attempts to
explain how and why we think the way we do by studying the interactions
among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem
solving, in addition to other cognitive processes. Cognitive
psychologists strive to determine and measure different types of
intelligence, why some people are better at problem solving than others,
and how emotional intelligence affects success in the workplace, among
countless other topics. They also sometimes focus on how we organize
thoughts and information gathered from our environments into meaningful
categories of thought, which will be discussed later.
The human nervous system is capable of handling endless streams of
information. The senses serve as the interface between the mind and the
external environment, receiving stimuli and translating it into nervous
impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brain then processes
this information and uses the relevant pieces to create thoughts, which
can then be expressed through language or stored in memory for future
use. To make this process more complex, the brain does not gather
information from external environments only. When thoughts are formed,
the brain also pulls information from emotions and memories
([link]). Emotion and memory are powerful
influences on both our thoughts and behaviors.
{: #Figure_07_01_Brain}
In order to organize this staggering amount of information, the brain
has developed a file cabinet of sorts in the mind. The different files
stored in the file cabinet are called concepts. Concepts{:
data-type=“term”} are categories or groupings of linguistic information,
images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences. Concepts are, in
many ways, big ideas that are generated by observing details, and
categorizing and combining these details into cognitive structures. You
use concepts to see the relationships among the different elements of
your experiences and to keep the information in your mind organized and
accessible.
Concepts are informed by our semantic memory (you will learn more about
semantic memory in a later chapter) and are present in every aspect of
our lives; however, one of the easiest places to notice concepts is
inside a classroom, where they are discussed explicitly. When you study
United States history, for example, you learn about more than just
individual events that have happened in America’s past. You absorb a
large quantity of information by listening to and participating in
discussions, examining maps, and reading first-hand accounts of people’s
lives. Your brain analyzes these details and develops an overall
understanding of American history. In the process, your brain gathers
details that inform and refine your understanding of related concepts
like democracy, power, and freedom.
Concepts can be complex and abstract, like justice, or more concrete,
like types of birds. In psychology, for example, Piaget’s stages of
development are abstract concepts. Some concepts, like tolerance, are
agreed upon by many people, because they have been used in various ways
over many years. Other concepts, like the characteristics of your ideal
friend or your family’s birthday traditions, are personal and
individualized. In this way, concepts touch every aspect of our lives,
from our many daily routines to the guiding principles behind the way
governments function.
Another technique used by your brain to organize information is the
identification of prototypes for the concepts you have developed. A
prototype{: data-type=“term”} is the best example or
representation of a concept. For example, for the category of civil
disobedience, your prototype could be Rosa Parks. Her peaceful
resistance to segregation on a city bus in Montgomery, Alabama, is a
recognizable example of civil disobedience. Or your prototype could be
Mohandas Gandhi, sometimes called Mahatma Gandhi (“Mahatma” is an
honorific title) ([link]).
{: #Figure_07_01_Gandhi}
Mohandas Gandhi served as a nonviolent force for independence for India
while simultaneously demanding that Buddhist, Hindu, Muslim, and
Christian leaders—both Indian and British—collaborate peacefully.
Although he was not always successful in preventing violence around him,
his life provides a steadfast example of the civil disobedience
prototype (Constitutional Rights Foundation, 2013). Just as concepts can
be abstract or concrete, we can make a distinction between concepts that
are functions of our direct experience with the world and those that are
more artificial in nature.
In psychology, concepts can be divided into two categories, natural and
artificial. Natural concepts{: data-type=“term”} are created
“naturally” through your experiences and can be developed from either
direct or indirect experiences. For example, if you live in Essex
Junction, Vermont, you have probably had a lot of direct experience with
snow. You’ve watched it fall from the sky, you’ve seen lightly falling
snow that barely covers the windshield of your car, and you’ve shoveled
out 18 inches of fluffy white snow as you’ve thought, “This is perfect
for skiing.” You’ve thrown snowballs at your best friend and gone
sledding down the steepest hill in town. In short, you know snow. You
know what it looks like, smells like, tastes like, and feels like. If,
however, you’ve lived your whole life on the island of Saint Vincent in
the Caribbean, you may never have actually seen snow, much less tasted,
smelled, or touched it. You know snow from the indirect experience of
seeing pictures of falling snow—or from watching films that feature snow
as part of the setting. Either way, snow is a natural concept because
you can construct an understanding of it through direct observations or
experiences of snow ([link]).
{:
#Figure_07_01_SnowShapes}
An artificial concept{: data-type=“term”}, on the other hand, is a
concept that is defined by a specific set of characteristics. Various
properties of geometric shapes, like squares and triangles, serve as
useful examples of artificial concepts. A triangle always has three
angles and three sides. A square always has four equal sides and four
right angles. Mathematical formulas, like the equation for area (length
× width) are artificial concepts defined by specific sets of
characteristics that are always the same. Artificial concepts can
enhance the understanding of a topic by building on one another. For
example, before learning the concept of “area of a square” (and the
formula to find it), you must understand what a square is. Once the
concept of “area of a square” is understood, an understanding of area
for other geometric shapes can be built upon the original understanding
of area. The use of artificial concepts to define an idea is crucial to
communicating with others and engaging in complex thought. According to
Goldstone and Kersten (2003), concepts act as building blocks and can be
connected in countless combinations to create complex thoughts.
A schema{: data-type=“term”} is a mental construct consisting of a
cluster or collection of related concepts (Bartlett, 1932). There are
many different types of schemata, and they all have one thing in common:
schemata are a method of organizing information that allows the brain to
work more efficiently. When a schema is activated, the brain makes
immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed.
There are several types of schemata. A role schema{:
data-type=“term”} makes assumptions about how individuals in certain
roles will behave (Callero, 1994). For example, imagine you meet someone
who introduces himself as a firefighter. When this happens, your brain
automatically activates the “firefighter schema” and begins making
assumptions that this person is brave, selfless, and community-oriented.
Despite not knowing this person, already you have unknowingly made
judgments about him. Schemata also help you fill in gaps in the
information you receive from the world around you. While schemata allow
for more efficient information processing, there can be problems with
schemata, regardless of whether they are accurate: Perhaps this
particular firefighter is not brave, he just works as a firefighter to
pay the bills while studying to become a children’s librarian.
An event schema{: data-type=“term”}, also known as a cognitive
script{: data-type=“term”}, is a set of behaviors that can feel like
a routine. Think about what you do when you walk into an elevator
([link]). First, the doors open and you
wait to let exiting passengers leave the elevator car. Then, you step
into the elevator and turn around to face the doors, looking for the
correct button to push. You never face the back of the elevator, do you?
And when you’re riding in a crowded elevator and you can’t face the
front, it feels uncomfortable, doesn’t it? Interestingly, event schemata
can vary widely among different cultures and countries. For example,
while it is quite common for people to greet one another with a
handshake in the United States, in Tibet, you greet someone by sticking
your tongue out at them, and in Belize, you bump fists (Cairns Regional
Council, n.d.)
{: #Figure_07_01_Elevator}
Because event schemata are automatic, they can be difficult to change.
Imagine that you are driving home from work or school. This event schema
involves getting in the car, shutting the door, and buckling your
seatbelt before putting the key in the ignition. You might perform this
script two or three times each day. As you drive home, you hear your
phone’s ring tone. Typically, the event schema that occurs when you hear
your phone ringing involves locating the phone and answering it or
responding to your latest text message. So without thinking, you reach
for your phone, which could be in your pocket, in your bag, or on the
passenger seat of the car. This powerful event schema is informed by
your pattern of behavior and the pleasurable stimulation that a phone
call or text message gives your brain. Because it is a schema, it is
extremely challenging for us to stop reaching for the phone, even though
we know that we endanger our own lives and the lives of others while we
do it (Neyfakh, 2013) ([link]).
{:
#Figure_07_01_Texting}
Remember the elevator? It feels almost impossible to walk in and not
face the door. Our powerful event schema dictates our behavior in the
elevator, and it is no different with our phones. Current research
suggests that it is the habit, or event schema, of checking our phones
in many different situations that makes refraining from checking them
while driving especially difficult (Bayer & Campbell, 2012). Because
texting and driving has become a dangerous epidemic in recent years,
psychologists are looking at ways to help people interrupt the “phone
schema” while driving. Event schemata like these are the reason why many
habits are difficult to break once they have been acquired. As we
continue to examine thinking, keep in mind how powerful the forces of
concepts and schemata are to our understanding of the world.
In this section, you were introduced to cognitive psychology, which is
the study of cognition, or the brain’s ability to think, perceive, plan,
analyze, and remember. Concepts and their corresponding prototypes help
us quickly organize our thinking by creating categories into which we
can sort new information. We also develop schemata, which are clusters
of related concepts. Some schemata involve routines of thought and
behavior, and these help us function properly in various situations
without having to “think twice” about them. Schemata show up in social
situations and routines of daily behavior.
Question
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on
the study of ________.
human development
human thinking
human behavior
human society {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which of the following is an example of a prototype for the
concept of leadership on an athletic team?
the equipment manager
the scorekeeper
the team captain
the quietest member of the team {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which of the following is an example of an artificial concept?
mammals
a triangle’s area
gemstones
teachers {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
An event schema is also known as a cognitive ________.
Describe an event schema that you would notice at a sporting
event.
Answers will vary. When attending a basketball game, it is typical
to support your team by wearing the team colors and sitting behind
their bench.
Explain why event schemata have so much power over human behavior.
Event schemata are rooted in the social fabric of our communities.
We expect people to behave in certain ways in certain types of
situations, and we hold ourselves to the same social standards. It
is uncomfortable to go against an event schema—it feels almost
like we are breaking the rules.
(plural = schemata) mental construct consisting of a cluster or
collection of related concepts
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define language
and demonstrate familiarity with the components of language *
Understand how the use of language develops * Explain the
relationship between language and thinking
Language {: data-type=“term”} is a communication system that
involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to
transmit information from one individual to another. While language is a
form of communication, not all communication is language. Many species
communicate with one another through their postures, movements, odors,
or vocalizations. This communication is crucial for species that need to
interact and develop social relationships with their conspecifics.
However, many people have asserted that it is language that makes humans
unique among all of the animal species (Corballis & Suddendorf, 2007;
Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003). This section will focus on what
distinguishes language as a special form of communication, how the use
of language develops, and how language affects the way we think.
Language, be it spoken, signed, or written, has specific components: a
lexicon and grammar. Lexicon {: data-type=“term”} refers to the
words of a given language. Thus, lexicon is a language’s vocabulary.
Grammar{: data-type=“term”} refers to the set of rules that are
used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon (Fernández &
Cairns, 2011). For instance, English grammar dictates that most verbs
receive an “-ed” at the end to indicate past tense.
Words are formed by combining the various phonemes that make up the
language. A phoneme {: data-type=“term”} (e.g., the sounds “ah”
vs. “eh”) is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different
languages have different sets of phonemes. Phonemes are combined to form
morphemes{: data-type=“term”}, which are the smallest units of
language that convey some type of meaning (e.g., “I” is both a phoneme
and a morpheme). We use semantics and syntax to construct language.
Semantics and syntax are part of a language’s grammar. Semantics{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the process by which we derive meaning from
morphemes and words. Syntax {: data-type=“term”} refers to the way
words are organized into sentences (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns,
2011).
We apply the rules of grammar to organize the lexicon in novel and
creative ways, which allow us to communicate information about both
concrete and abstract concepts. We can talk about our immediate and
observable surroundings as well as the surface of unseen planets. We can
share our innermost thoughts, our plans for the future, and debate the
value of a college education. We can provide detailed instructions for
cooking a meal, fixing a car, or building a fire. The flexibility that
language provides to relay vastly different types of information is a
property that makes language so distinct as a mode of communication
among humans.
Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that
mastering a language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for
those of us trying to learn a second language as adults, this might seem
to be true. However, young children master language very quickly with
relative ease. B. F. Skinner
(1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam
****Chomsky (1965) criticized this
behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying
language acquisition are biologically determined. The use of language
develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to follow a
very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and
backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a
biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965;
Fernández & Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical
period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring
language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease
with which they acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson &
Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).
Children begin to learn about language from a very early age
([link]). In fact, it appears that this is
occurring even before we are born. Newborns show preference for their
mother’s voice and appear to be able to discriminate between the
language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are also
attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for
videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken
language versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio (Blossom &
Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).
Stages of Language and Communication Development
Stage
Age
Developmental Language and Communication
1
0–3 months
Reflexive communication
2
3–8 months
Reflexive communication; interest in others
3
8–13 months
Intentional communication; sociability
4
12–18 months
First words
5
18–24 months
Simple sentences of two words
6
2–3 years
Sentences of three or more words
7
3–5 years
Complex sentences; has conversations
Tip
The Case of Genie
In the fall of 1970, a social worker in the Los Angeles area found a
13-year-old girl who was being raised in extremely neglectful and
abusive conditions. The girl, who came to be known as Genie, had
lived most of her life tied to a potty chair or confined to a crib in
a small room that was kept closed with the curtains drawn. For a
little over a decade, Genie had virtually no social interaction and
no access to the outside world. As a result of these conditions,
Genie was unable to stand up, chew solid food, or speak (Fromkin,
Krashen, Curtiss, Rigler, & Rigler, 1974; Rymer, 1993). The police
took Genie into protective custody.
Genie’s abilities improved dramatically following her removal from
her abusive environment, and early on, it appeared she was acquiring
language—much later than would be predicted by critical period
hypotheses that had been posited at the time (Fromkin et al., 1974).
Genie managed to amass an impressive vocabulary in a relatively short
amount of time. However, she never developed a mastery of the
grammatical aspects of language (Curtiss, 1981). Perhaps being
deprived of the opportunity to learn language during a critical
period impeded Genie’s ability to fully acquire and use language.
You may recall that each language has its own set of phonemes that are
used to generate morphemes, words, and so on. Babies can discriminate
among the sounds that make up a language (for example, they can tell the
difference between the “s” in vision and the “ss” in fission); early on,
they can differentiate between the sounds of all human languages, even
those that do not occur in the languages that are used in their
environments. However, by the time that they are about 1 year old, they
can only discriminate among those phonemes that are used in the language
or languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011; Werker & Lalonde,
1988; Werker & Tees, 1984).
psychology link-to-learning
Visit this website to learn more
about how babies lose the ability to discriminate among all possible
human phonemes as they age.
After the first few months of life, babies enter what is known as the
babbling stage, during which time they tend to produce single syllables
that are repeated over and over. As time passes, more variations appear
in the syllables that they produce. During this time, it is unlikely
that the babies are trying to communicate; they are just as likely to
babble when they are alone as when they are with their caregivers
(Fernández & Cairns, 2011). Interestingly, babies who are raised in
environments in which sign language is used will also begin to show
babbling in the gestures of their hands during this stage (Petitto,
Holowka, Sergio, Levy, & Ostry, 2004).
Generally, a child’s first word is uttered sometime between the ages of
1 year to 18 months, and for the next few months, the child will remain
in the “one word” stage of language development. During this time,
children know a number of words, but they only produce one-word
utterances. The child’s early vocabulary is limited to familiar objects
or events, often nouns. Although children in this stage only make
one-word utterances, these words often carry larger meaning (Fernández &
Cairns, 2011). So, for example, a child saying “cookie” could be
identifying a cookie or asking for a cookie.
As a child’s lexicon grows, she begins to utter simple sentences and to
acquire new vocabulary at a very rapid pace. In addition, children begin
to demonstrate a clear understanding of the specific rules that apply to
their language(s). Even the mistakes that children sometimes make
provide evidence of just how much they understand about those rules.
This is sometimes seen in the form of overgeneralization{:
data-type=“term”}. In this context, overgeneralization refers to an
extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule. For example,
in English, it is usually the case that an “s” is added to the end of a
word to indicate plurality. For example, we speak of one dog versus two
dogs. Young children will overgeneralize this rule to cases that are
exceptions to the “add an s to the end of the word” rule and say things
like “those two gooses” or “three mouses.” Clearly, the rules of the
language are understood, even if the exceptions to the rules are still
being learned (Moskowitz, 1978).
When we speak one language, we agree that words are representations of
ideas, people, places, and events. The given language that children
learn is connected to their culture and surroundings. But can words
themselves shape the way we think about things? Psychologists have long
investigated the question of whether language shapes thoughts and
actions, or whether our thoughts and beliefs shape our language. Two
researchers, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, began this
investigation in the 1940s. They wanted to understand how the language
habits of a community encourage members of that community to interpret
language in a particular manner (Sapir, 1941/1964). Sapir and Whorf
proposed that language determines thought, suggesting, for example, that
a person whose community language did not have past-tense verbs would be
challenged to think about the past (Whorf, 1956). Researchers have since
identified this view as too absolute, pointing out a lack of empiricism
behind what Sapir and Whorf proposed (Abler, 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van
Troyer, 1994). Today, psychologists continue to study and debate the
relationship between language and thought.
See also
The Meaning of Language
Think about what you know of other languages; perhaps you even speak
multiple languages. Imagine for a moment that your closest friend
fluently speaks more than one language. Do you think that friend
thinks differently, depending on which language is being spoken? You
may know a few words that are not translatable from their original
language into English. For example, the Portuguese word saudade
originated during the 15th century, when Portuguese sailors left home
to explore the seas and travel to Africa or Asia. Those left behind
described the emptiness and fondness they felt as saudade
([link]). The word came to express
many meanings, including loss, nostalgia, yearning, warm memories,
and hope. There is no single word in English that includes all of
those emotions in a single description. Do words such as saudade
indicate that different languages produce different patterns of
thought in people? What do you think??
{: #Figure_07_02_Saudade}
Language may indeed influence the way that we think, an idea known as
linguistic determinism. One recent demonstration of this phenomenon
involved differences in the way that English and Mandarin Chinese
speakers talk and think about time. English speakers tend to talk about
time using terms that describe changes along a horizontal dimension, for
example, saying something like “I’m running behind schedule” or “Don’t
get ahead of yourself.” While Mandarin Chinese speakers also describe
time in horizontal terms, it is not uncommon to also use terms
associated with a vertical arrangement. For example, the past might be
described as being “up” and the future as being “down.” It turns out
that these differences in language translate into differences in
performance on cognitive tests designed to measure how quickly an
individual can recognize temporal relationships. Specifically, when
given a series of tasks with vertical priming, Mandarin Chinese speakers
were faster at recognizing temporal relationships between months.
Indeed, Boroditsky (2001) sees these results as suggesting that “habits
in language encourage habits in thought” (p. 12).
One group of researchers who wanted to investigate how language
influences thought compared how English speakers and the Dani people of
Papua New Guinea think and speak about color. The Dani have two words
for color: one word for light and one word for dark. In contrast, the
English language has 11 color words. Researchers hypothesized that the
number of color terms could limit the ways that the Dani people
conceptualized color. However, the Dani were able to distinguish colors
with the same ability as English speakers, despite having fewer words at
their disposal (Berlin & Kay, 1969). A recent review of research aimed
at determining how language might affect something like color perception
suggests that language can influence perceptual phenomena, especially in
the left hemisphere of the brain. You may recall from earlier chapters
that the left hemisphere is associated with language for most people.
However, the right (less linguistic hemisphere) of the brain is less
affected by linguistic influences on perception (Regier & Kay, 2009)
Language is a communication system that has both a lexicon and a system
of grammar. Language acquisition occurs naturally and effortlessly
during the early stages of life, and this acquisition occurs in a
predictable sequence for individuals around the world. Language has a
strong influence on thought, and the concept of how language may
influence cognition remains an area of study and debate in psychology.
Question
________ provides general principles for organizing words into
meaningful sentences.
Linguistic determinism
Lexicon
Semantics
Syntax {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ are the smallest unit of language that carry meaning.
Lexicon
Phonemes
Morphemes
Syntax {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
The meaning of words and phrases is determined by applying the
rules of ________.
lexicon
phonemes
overgeneralization
semantics {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ is (are) the basic sound units of a spoken language.
How do words not only represent our thoughts but also represent
our values?
People tend to talk about the things that are important to them or
the things they think about the most. What we talk about,
therefore, is a reflection of our values.
How could grammatical errors actually be indicative of language
acquisition in children?
People tend to talk about the things that are important to them or
the things they think about the most. What we talk about,
therefore, is a reflection of our values.
How do words not only represent our thoughts but also represent
our values?
Grammatical errors that involve overgeneralization of specific
rules of a given language indicate that the child recognizes the
rule, even if he or she doesn’t recognize all of the subtleties or
exceptions involved in the rule’s application.
manner by which words are organized into sentences
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe problem
solving strategies * Define algorithm and heuristic * Explain some
common roadblocks to effective problem solving
People face problems every day—usually, multiple problems throughout the
day. Sometimes these problems are straightforward: To double a recipe
for pizza dough, for example, all that is required is that each
ingredient in the recipe be doubled. Sometimes, however, the problems we
encounter are more complex. For example, say you have a work deadline,
and you must mail a printed copy of a report to your supervisor by the
end of the business day. The report is time-sensitive and must be sent
overnight. You finished the report last night, but your printer will not
work today. What should you do? First, you need to identify the problem
and then apply a strategy for solving the problem.
When you are presented with a problem—whether it is a complex
mathematical problem or a broken printer, how do you solve it? Before
finding a solution to the problem, the problem must first be clearly
identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be
applied, hopefully resulting in a solution.
A problem-solving strategy{: data-type=“term”} is a plan of action
used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action
plans associated with them ([link]). For example,
a well-known strategy is trial and error{: data-type=“term”}. The
old adage, “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try again” describes
trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking
the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure
the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe the printer isn’t actually
connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would continue
to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial
and error is not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it
is a commonly used one.
Problem-Solving Strategies
Method
Description
Example
Trial and error
Continue trying different solutions until problem is solved
Restarting phone, turning off WiFi, turning off bluetooth in order to
determine why your phone is malfunctioning
Algorithm
Step-by-step problem-solving formula
Instruction manual for installing new software on your computer
Heuristic
General problem-solving framework
Working backwards; breaking a task into steps
Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An algorithm{:
data-type=“term”} is a problem-solving formula that provides you with
step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman,
2011). You can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed
instructions that produce the same result every time they are performed.
Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday lives, especially in
computer science. When you run a search on the Internet, search engines
like Google use algorithms to decide which entries will appear first in
your list of results. Facebook also uses algorithms to decide which
posts to display on your newsfeed. Can you identify other situations in
which algorithms are used?
A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an
algorithm must be followed exactly to produce a correct result, a
heuristic{: data-type=“term”} is a general problem-solving
framework (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental
shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A “rule of thumb” is an
example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy
when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it
is not always the best method for making a rational decision. Different
types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, but the
impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five conditions is met
(Pratkanis, 1989):
When one is faced with too much information
When the time to make a decision is limited
When the decision to be made is unimportant
When there is access to very little information to use in making the
decision
When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same
moment
Working backwards{: data-type=“term”} is a useful heuristic in
which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result.
Consider this example: You live in Washington, D.C. and have been
invited to a wedding at 4 PM on Saturday in Philadelphia. Knowing that
Interstate 95 tends to back up any day of the week, you need to plan
your route and time your departure accordingly. If you want to be at the
wedding service by 3:30 PM, and it takes 2.5 hours to get to
Philadelphia without traffic, what time should you leave your house? You
use the working backwards heuristic to plan the events of your day on a
regular basis, probably without even thinking about it.
Another useful heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal
or task by breaking it into a series of smaller steps. Students often
use this common method to complete a large research project or long
essay for school. For example, students typically brainstorm, develop a
thesis or main topic, research the chosen topic, organize their
information into an outline, write a rough draft, revise and edit the
rough draft, develop a final draft, organize the references list, and
proofread their work before turning in the project. The large task
becomes less overwhelming when it is broken down into a series of small
steps.
Solving Puzzles
Problem-solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people
challenge themselves every day with puzzles and other mental
exercises to sharpen their problem-solving skills. Sudoku puzzles
appear daily in most newspapers. Typically, a sudoku puzzle is a 9×9
grid. The simple sudoku below ([link]) is
a 4×4 grid. To solve the puzzle, fill in the empty boxes with a
single digit: 1, 2, 3, or 4. Here are the rules: The numbers must
total 10 in each bolded box, each row, and each column; however, each
digit can only appear once in a bolded box, row, and column. Time
yourself as you solve this puzzle and compare your time with a
classmate.
{:
#Figure_07_03_Sudoku}
Here is another popular type of puzzle
([link]) that challenges your
spatial reasoning skills. Connect all nine dots with four connecting
straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper:
{: #Figure_07_03_DotsAndLines}
Take a look at the “Puzzling Scales” logic puzzle below
([link]). Sam Loyd, a well-known puzzle
master, created and refined countless puzzles throughout his lifetime
(Cyclopedia of Puzzles, n.d.).
Not all problems are successfully solved, however. What challenges stop
us from successfully solving a problem? Albert Einstein once said,
“Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a
different result.” Imagine a person in a room that has four doorways.
One doorway that has always been open in the past is now locked. The
person, accustomed to exiting the room by that particular doorway, keeps
trying to get out through the same doorway even though the other three
doorways are open. The person is stuck—but she just needs to go to
another doorway, instead of trying to get out through the locked
doorway. A mental set{: data-type=“term”} is where you persist in
approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is
clearly not working now.
Functional fixedness{: data-type=“term”} is a type of mental set
where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than
what it was designed for. During the Apollo 13 mission to the moon,
NASA engineers at Mission Control had to overcome functional fixedness
to save the lives of the astronauts aboard the spacecraft. An explosion
in a module of the spacecraft damaged multiple systems. The astronauts
were in danger of being poisoned by rising levels of carbon dioxide
because of problems with the carbon dioxide filters. The engineers found
a way for the astronauts to use spare plastic bags, tape, and air hoses
to create a makeshift air filter, which saved the lives of the
astronauts.
See also
Check out this Apollo 13 scene
where the group of NASA engineers are given the task of overcoming
functional fixedness.
Researchers have investigated whether functional fixedness is affected
by culture. In one experiment, individuals from the Shuar group in
Ecuador were asked to use an object for a purpose other than that for
which the object was originally intended. For example, the participants
were told a story about a bear and a rabbit that were separated by a
river and asked to select among various objects, including a spoon, a
cup, erasers, and so on, to help the animals. The spoon was the only
object long enough to span the imaginary river, but if the spoon was
presented in a way that reflected its normal usage, it took participants
longer to choose the spoon to solve the problem. (German & Barrett,
2005). The researchers wanted to know if exposure to highly specialized
tools, as occurs with individuals in industrialized nations, affects
their ability to transcend functional fixedness. It was determined that
functional fixedness is experienced in both industrialized and
nonindustrialized cultures (German & Barrett, 2005).
In order to make good decisions, we use our knowledge and our reasoning.
Often, this knowledge and reasoning is sound and solid. Sometimes,
however, we are swayed by biases or by others manipulating a situation.
For example, let’s say you and three friends wanted to rent a house and
had a combined target budget of $1,600. The realtor shows you only very
run-down houses for $1,600 and then shows you a very nice house for
$2,000. Might you ask each person to pay more in rent to get the $2,000
home? Why would the realtor show you the run-down houses and the nice
house? The realtor may be challenging your anchoring bias. An
anchoring bias{: data-type=“term”} occurs when you focus on one
piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. In
this case, you’re so focused on the amount of money you are willing to
spend that you may not recognize what kinds of houses are available at
that price point.
The confirmation bias{: data-type=“term”} is the tendency to focus
on information that confirms your existing beliefs. For example, if you
think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the
instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the
countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis.
Hindsight bias{: data-type=“term”} leads you to believe that the
event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really
wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out
the way they did. Representative bias{: data-type=“term”}
describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you unintentionally
stereotype someone or something; for example, you may assume that your
professors spend their free time reading books and engaging in
intellectual conversation, because the idea of them spending their time
playing volleyball or visiting an amusement park does not fit in with
your stereotypes of professors.
Finally, the availability heuristic{: data-type=“term”} is a
heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information,
or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though
it may not be the best example to inform your decision. Biases
tend to “preserve that which is already established—to maintain our
preexisting knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and hypotheses” (Aronson,
1995; Kahneman, 2011). These biases are summarized in
[link].
Summary of Decision Biases
Bias
Description
Anchoring
Tendency to focus on one particular piece of information when making
decisions or problem-solving
Confirmation
Focuses on information that confirms existing beliefs
Hindsight
Belief that the event just experienced was predictable
Representative
Unintentional stereotyping of someone or something
Availability
Decision is based upon either an available precedent or an example that
may be faulty
See also
Please visit this site to see a
clever music video that a high school teacher made to explain these
and other cognitive biases to his AP psychology students.
Were you able to determine how many marbles are needed to balance the
scales in [link]? You need nine. Were you
able to solve the problems in [link] and
[link]? Here are the answers
([link]).
Many different strategies exist for solving problems. Typical strategies
include trial and error, applying algorithms, and using heuristics. To
solve a large, complicated problem, it often helps to break the problem
into smaller steps that can be accomplished individually, leading to an
overall solution. Roadblocks to problem solving include a mental set,
functional fixedness, and various biases that can cloud decision making
skills.
Question
A specific formula for solving a problem is called ________.
an algorithm
a heuristic
a mental set
trial and error {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
A mental shortcut in the form of a general problem-solving
framework is called ________.
an algorithm
a heuristic
a mental set
trial and error {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which type of bias involves becoming fixated on a single trait of
a problem?
anchoring bias
confirmation bias
representative bias
availability bias {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Which type of bias involves relying on a false stereotype to make
a decision?
What is functional fixedness and how can overcoming it help you
solve problems?
Functional fixedness occurs when you cannot see a use for an
object other than the use for which it was intended. For example,
if you need something to hold up a tarp in the rain, but only have
a pitchfork, you must overcome your expectation that a pitchfork
can only be used for garden chores before you realize that you
could stick it in the ground and drape the tarp on top of it to
hold it up.
How does an algorithm save you time and energy when solving a
problem?
An algorithm is a proven formula for achieving a desired outcome.
It saves time because if you follow it exactly, you will solve the
problem without having to figure out how to solve the problem. It
is a bit like not reinventing the wheel.
Which type of bias do you recognize in your own decision making
processes? How has this bias affected how you’ve made decisions in
the past and how can you use your awareness of it to improve your
decisions making skills in the future?
heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the
end result
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define
intelligence * Explain the triarchic theory of intelligence *
Identify the difference between intelligence theories * Explain
emotional intelligence
A four-and-a-half-year-old boy sits at the kitchen table with his
father, who is reading a new story aloud to him. He turns the page to
continue reading, but before he can begin, the boy says, “Wait, Daddy!”
He points to the words on the new page and reads aloud, “Go, Pig! Go!”
The father stops and looks at his son. “Can you read that?” he asks.
“Yes, Daddy!” And he points to the words and reads again, “Go, Pig! Go!”
This father was not actively teaching his son to read, even though the
child constantly asked questions about letters, words, and symbols that
they saw everywhere: in the car, in the store, on the television. The
dad wondered about what else his son might understand and decided to try
an experiment. Grabbing a sheet of blank paper, he wrote several simple
words in a list: mom, dad, dog, bird, bed, truck, car, tree. He put the
list down in front of the boy and asked him to read the words. “Mom,
dad, dog, bird, bed, truck, car, tree,” he read, slowing down to
carefully pronounce bird and truck. Then, “Did I do it, Daddy?” “You
sure did! That is very good.” The father gave his little boy a warm hug
and continued reading the story about the pig, all the while wondering
if his son’s abilities were an indication of exceptional intelligence or
simply a normal pattern of linguistic development. Like the father in
this example, psychologists have wondered what constitutes intelligence
and how it can be measured.
What exactly is intelligence? The way that researchers have defined the
concept of intelligence has been modified many times since the birth of
psychology. British psychologist Charles Spearman believed intelligence
consisted of one general factor, called g, which could be measured and
compared among individuals. Spearman focused on the commonalities among
various intellectual abilities and demphasized what made each unique.
Long before modern psychology developed, however, ancient philosophers,
such as Aristotle, held a similar view (Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004).
Others psychologists believe that instead of a single factor,
intelligence is a collection of distinct abilities. In the 1940s,
Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that divided general
intelligence into two components: crystallized intelligence and fluid
intelligence (Cattell, 1963). Crystallized intelligence{:
data-type=“term”} is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability
to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you
are using crystallized intelligence. You use crystallized intelligence
all the time in your coursework by demonstrating that you have mastered
the information covered in the course. Fluid intelligence{:
data-type=“term”} encompasses the ability to see complex relationships
and solve problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto
an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your
fluid intelligence. Fluid intelligence helps you tackle complex,
abstract challenges in your daily life, whereas crystallized
intelligence helps you overcome concrete, straightforward problems
(Cattell, 1963).
Other theorists and psychologists believe that intelligence should be
defined in more practical terms. For example, what types of behaviors
help you get ahead in life? Which skills promote success? Think about
this for a moment. Being able to recite all 44 presidents of the United
States in order is an excellent party trick, but will knowing this make
you a better person?
Robert Sternberg developed another theory of intelligence, which he
titled the triarchic theory of intelligence{: data-type=“term”}
because it sees intelligence as comprised of three parts (Sternberg,
1988): practical, creative, and analytical intelligence
([link]).
{:
#Figure_07_04_Triarchic}
Practical intelligence{: data-type=“term”}, as proposed by
Sternberg, is sometimes compared to “street smarts.” Being practical
means you find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying
knowledge based on your experiences. This type of intelligence appears
to be separate from traditional understanding of IQ; individuals who
score high in practical intelligence may or may not have comparable
scores in creative and analytical intelligence (Sternberg, 1988).
This story about the 2007 Virginia Tech shootings illustrates both high
and low practical intelligences. During the incident, one student left
her class to go get a soda in an adjacent building. She planned to
return to class, but when she returned to her building after getting her
soda, she saw that the door she used to leave was now chained shut from
the inside. Instead of thinking about why there was a chain around the
door handles, she went to her class’s window and crawled back into the
room. She thus potentially exposed herself to the gunman. Thankfully,
she was not shot. On the other hand, a pair of students was walking on
campus when they heard gunshots nearby. One friend said, “Let’s go check
it out and see what is going on.” The other student said, “No way, we
need to run away from the gunshots.” They did just that. As a result,
both avoided harm. The student who crawled through the window
demonstrated some creative intelligence but did not use common sense.
She would have low practical intelligence. The student who encouraged
his friend to run away from the sound of gunshots would have much higher
practical intelligence.
Analytical intelligence{: data-type=“term”} is closely aligned
with academic problem solving and computations. Sternberg says that
analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an ability to analyze,
evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast. When reading a classic novel for
literature class, for example, it is usually necessary to compare the
motives of the main characters of the book or analyze the historical
context of the story. In a science course such as anatomy, you must
study the processes by which the body uses various minerals in different
human systems. In developing an understanding of this topic, you are
using analytical intelligence. When solving a challenging math problem,
you would apply analytical intelligence to analyze different aspects of
the problem and then solve it section by section.
Creative intelligence{: data-type=“term”} is marked by inventing
or imagining a solution to a problem or situation. Creativity in this
realm can include finding a novel solution to an unexpected problem or
producing a beautiful work of art or a well-developed short story.
Imagine for a moment that you are camping in the woods with some friends
and realize that you’ve forgotten your camp coffee pot. The person in
your group who figures out a way to successfully brew coffee for
everyone would be credited as having higher creative intelligence.
Multiple Intelligences Theory{: data-type=“term”} was developed by
Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist and former student of Erik
Erikson. Gardner’s theory, which has been refined for more than 30
years, is a more recent development among theories of intelligence. In
Gardner’s theory, each person possesses at least eight intelligences.
Among these eight intelligences, a person typically excels in some and
falters in others (Gardner, 1983). [link]
describes each type of intelligence.
Multiple Intelligences
Intelligence Type
Characteristics
Representative Career
Linguistic intelligence
Perceives different functions of language, different sounds and meanings
of words, may easily learn multiple languages
Journalist, novelist, poet, teacher
Logical-mathematical intelligence
Capable of seeing numerical patterns, strong ability to use reason and
logic
Scientist, mathematician
Musical intelligence
Understands and appreciates rhythm, pitch, and tone; may play multiple
instruments or perform as a vocalist
Composer, performer
Bodily kinesthetic intelligence
High ability to control the movements of the body and use the body to
perform various physical tasks
Dancer, athlete, athletic coach, yoga instructor
Spatial intelligence
Ability to perceive the relationship between objects and how they move
in space
Ability to understand and be sensitive to the various emotional states
of others
Counselor, social worker, salesperson
Intrapersonal intelligence
Ability to access personal feelings and motivations, and use them to
direct behavior and reach personal goals
Key component of personal success over time
Naturalist intelligence
High capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the
species within it
Biologist, ecologist, environmentalist
Gardner’s theory is relatively new and needs additional research to
better establish empirical support. At the same time, his ideas
challenge the traditional idea of intelligence to include a wider
variety of abilities, although it has been suggested that Gardner simply
relabeled what other theorists called “cognitive styles” as
“intelligences” (Morgan, 1996). Furthermore, developing traditional
measures of Gardner’s intelligences is extremely difficult (Furnham,
2009; Gardner & Moran, 2006; Klein, 1997).
Gardner’s inter- and intrapersonal intelligences are often combined into
a single type: emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence{:
data-type=“term”} encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of
yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and
cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally
appropriate ways (Parker, Saklofske, & Stough, 2009). People with high
emotional intelligence typically have well-developed social skills. Some
researchers, including Daniel Goleman, the author of Emotional
Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ, argue that emotional
intelligence is a better predictor of success than traditional
intelligence (Goleman, 1995). However, emotional intelligence has been
widely debated, with researchers pointing out inconsistencies in how it
is defined and described, as well as questioning results of studies on a
subject that is difficulty to measure and study emperically (Locke,
2005; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004)
Intelligence can also have different meanings and values in different
cultures. If you live on a small island, where most people get their
food by fishing from boats, it would be important to know how to fish
and how to repair a boat. If you were an exceptional angler, your peers
would probably consider you intelligent. If you were also skilled at
repairing boats, your intelligence might be known across the whole
island. Think about your own family’s culture. What values are important
for Latino families? Italian families? In Irish families, hospitality
and telling an entertaining story are marks of the culture. If you are a
skilled storyteller, other members of Irish culture are likely to
consider you intelligent.
Some cultures place a high value on working together as a collective. In
these cultures, the importance of the group supersedes the importance of
individual achievement. When you visit such a culture, how well you
relate to the values of that culture exemplifies your cultural
intelligence{: data-type=“term”}, sometimes referred to as cultural
competence.
Creativity{: data-type=“term”} is the ability to generate, create,
or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities. Very creative
people often have intense knowledge about something, work on it for
years, look at novel solutions, seek out the advice and help of other
experts, and take risks. Although creativity is often associated with
the arts, it is actually a vital form of intelligence that drives people
in many disciplines to discover something new. Creativity can be found
in every area of life, from the way you decorate your residence to a new
way of understanding how a cell works.
Creativity is often assessed as a function of one’s ability to engage in
divergent thinking{: data-type=“term”}. Divergent thinking can be
described as thinking “outside the box;” it allows an individual to
arrive at unique, multiple solutions to a given problem. In contrast,
convergent thinking{: data-type=“term”} describes the ability to
provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem
(Cropley, 2006; Gilford, 1967)
Creativity
Dr. Tom Steitz, the Sterling Professor of Biochemistry and Biophysics
at Yale University, has spent his career looking at the structure and
specific aspects of RNA molecules and how their interactions could
help produce antibiotics and ward off diseases. As a result of his
lifetime of work, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009. He
wrote, “Looking back over the development and progress of my career
in science, I am reminded how vitally important good mentorship is in
the early stages of one’s career development and constant
face-to-face conversations, debate and discussions with colleagues at
all stages of research. Outstanding discoveries, insights and
developments do not happen in a vacuum” (Steitz, 2010, para. 39).
Based on Steitz’s comment, it becomes clear that someone’s
creativity, although an individual strength, benefits from
interactions with others. Think of a time when your creativity was
sparked by a conversation with a friend or classmate. How did that
person influence you and what problem did you solve using creativity?
Intelligence is a complex characteristic of cognition. Many theories
have been developed to explain what intelligence is and how it works.
Sternberg generated his triarchic theory of intelligence, whereas
Gardner posits that intelligence is comprised of many factors. Still
others focus on the importance of emotional intelligence. Finally,
creativity seems to be a facet of intelligence, but it is extremely
difficult to measure objectively.
Question
Fluid intelligence is characterized by ________.
being able to recall information
being able to create new products
being able to understand and communicate with different
cultures
being able to see complex relationships and solve problems {:
type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Which of the following is not one of Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences?
creative
spatial
linguistic
musical {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Which theorist put forth the triarchic theory of intelligence?
Goleman
Gardner
Sternberg
Steitz {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
When you are examining data to look for trends, which type of
intelligence are you using most?
Describe a situation in which you would need to use practical
intelligence.
You are out with friends and it is getting late. You need to make
it home before your curfew, but you don’t have a ride home. You
need to get in touch with your parents, but your cell phone is
dead. So, you enter a nearby convenience store and explain your
situation to the clerk. He allows you to use the store’s phone to
call your parents, and they come and pick you and your friends up,
and take all of you home.
Describe a situation in which cultural intelligence would help you
communicate better.
You are visiting Madrid, Spain, on a language immersion trip. Your
Spanish is okay, but you still not sure about some of the facial
expressions and body language of the native speakers. When faced
with a sticky social situation, you do not engage immediately as
you might back home. Instead, you hold back and observe what
others are doing before reacting.
Sternberg’s theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence:
practical, creative, and analytical
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Describe the purposes and benefits of intelligence testing
…
While you’re likely familiar with the term “IQ” and associate it with
the idea of intelligence, what does IQ really mean? IQ stands for
intelligence quotient and describes a score
earned on a test designed to measure intelligence. You’ve already
learned that there are many ways psychologists describe intelligence (or
more aptly, intelligences). Similarly, IQ tests—the tools designed to
measure intelligence—have been the subject of debate throughout their
development and use.
When might an IQ test be used? What do we learn from the results, and
how might people use this information? IQ tests are expensive to
administer and must be given by a licensed psychologist. Intelligence
testing has been considered both a bane and a boon for education and
social policy. In this section, we will explore what intelligence tests
measure, how they are scored, and how they were developed.
It seems that the human understanding of intelligence is somewhat
limited when we focus on traditional or academic-type intelligence. How
then, can intelligence be measured? And when we measure intelligence,
how do we ensure that we capture what we’re really trying to measure (in
other words, that IQ tests function as valid measures of intelligence)?
In the following paragraphs, we will explore the how intelligence tests
were developed and the history of their use.
The IQ test has been synonymous with intelligence for over a century. In
the late 1800s, Sir Francis Galton developed the first broad test of
intelligence (Flanagan & Kaufman, 2004) .
Although he was not a
psychologist, his contributions to the concepts of intelligence testing
are still felt today (Gordon, 1995). Reliable intelligence testing (you
may recall from earlier chapters that reliability refers to a test’s
ability to produce consistent results) began in earnest during the early
1900s with a researcher named Alfred Binet
([link]). Binet was asked by the French
government to develop an intelligence test to use on children to
determine which ones might have difficulty in school; it included many
verbally based tasks. American researchers soon realized the value of
such testing. Louis Terman, a Stanford professor, modified Binet’s work
by standardizing the administration of the test and tested thousands of
different-aged children to establish an average score for each age. As a
result, the test was normed and standardized, which means that the test
was administered consistently to a large enough representative sample of
the population that the range of scores resulted in a bell curve (bell
curves will be discussed later). Standardization{:
data-type=“term”} means that the manner of administration, scoring, and
interpretation of results is consistent. Norming{:
data-type=“term”} involves giving a test to a large population so data
can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups. The resulting
data provide norms, or referential scores, by which to interpret future
scores. Norms are not expectations of what a given group should know but
a demonstration of what that group does know. Norming and standardizing
the test ensures that new scores are reliable. This new version of the
test was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Terman, 1916).
Remarkably, an updated version of this test is still widely used today.
{: #Figure_07_05_ChildIQ}
In 1939, David Wechsler, a psychologist who spent part of his career
working with World War I veterans, developed a new IQ test in the United
States. Wechsler combined several subtests from other intelligence tests
used between 1880 and World War I. These subtests tapped into a variety
of verbal and nonverbal skills, because Wechsler believed that
intelligence encompassed “the global capacity of a person to act
purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his
environment” (Wechsler, 1958, p. 7). He named the test the
Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, 1981). This combination
of subtests became one of the most extensively used intelligence tests
in the history of psychology. Although its name was later changed to the
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and has been revised several
times, the aims of the test remain virtually unchanged since its
inception (Boake, 2002). Today, there are three intelligence tests
credited to Wechsler, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-fourth
edition (WAIS-IV), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC-V), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of
Intelligence—IV (WPPSI-IV) (Wechsler, 2012). These tests are used widely
in schools and communities throughout the United States, and they are
periodically normed and standardized as a means of recalibration.
Interestingly, the periodic recalibrations have led to an interesting
observation known as the Flynn effect. Named after James Flynn, who was
among the first to describe this trend, the Flynn effect{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the observation that each generation has a
significantly higher IQ than the last. Flynn himself argues, however,
that increased IQ scores do not necessarily mean that younger
generations are more intelligent per se (Flynn, Shaughnessy, & Fulgham,
2012). As a part of the recalibration process, the WISC-V was given to
thousands of children across the country, and children taking the test
today are compared with their same-age peers
([link]).
The WISC-V is composed of 14 subtests, which comprise five indices,
which then render an IQ score. The five indices are Verbal
Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and
Processing Speed. When the test is complete, individuals receive a score
for each of the five indices and a Full Scale IQ score. The method of
scoring reflects the understanding that intelligence is comprised of
multiple abilities in several cognitive realms and focuses on the mental
processes that the child used to arrive at his or her answers to each
test item.
Ultimately, we are still left with the question of how valid
intelligence tests are. Certainly, the most modern versions of these
tests tap into more than verbal competencies, yet the specific skills
that should be assessed in IQ testing, the degree to which any test can
truly measure an individual’s intelligence, and the use of the results
of IQ tests are still issues of debate (Gresham & Witt, 1997; Flynn,
Shaughnessy, & Fulgham, 2012; Richardson, 2002; Schlinger, 2003).
See also
Intellectually Disabled Criminals and Capital Punishment
The case of Atkins v. Virginia was a landmark case in the United
States Supreme Court. On August 16, 1996, two men, Daryl Atkins and
William Jones, robbed, kidnapped, and then shot and killed Eric
Nesbitt, a local airman from the U.S. Air Force. A clinical
psychologist evaluated Atkins and testified at the trial that Atkins
had an IQ of 59. The mean IQ score is 100. The psychologist concluded
that Atkins was mildly mentally retarded.
The jury found Atkins guilty, and he was sentenced to death. Atkins
and his attorneys appealed to the Supreme Court. In June 2002, the
Supreme Court reversed a previous decision and ruled that executions
of mentally retarded criminals are ‘cruel and unusual punishments’
prohibited by the Eighth Amendment. The court wrote in their
decision:
Clinical definitions of mental retardation require not only
subaverage intellectual functioning, but also significant
limitations in adaptive skills. Mentally retarded persons
frequently know the difference between right and wrong and are
competent to stand trial. Because of their impairments, however,
by definition they have diminished capacities to understand and
process information, to communicate, to abstract from mistakes and
learn from experience, to engage in logical reasoning, to control
impulses, and to understand others’ reactions. Their deficiencies
do not warrant an exemption from criminal sanctions, but diminish
their personal culpability (Atkins v. Virginia, 2002, par. 5).
The court also decided that there was a state legislature consensus
against the execution of the mentally retarded and that this
consensus should stand for all of the states. The Supreme Court
ruling left it up to the states to determine their own definitions of
mental retardation and intellectual disability. The definitions vary
among states as to who can be executed. In the Atkins case, a jury
decided that because he had many contacts with his lawyers and thus
was provided with intellectual stimulation, his IQ had reportedly
increased, and he was now smart enough to be executed. He was given
an execution date and then received a stay of execution after it was
revealed that lawyers for co-defendant, William Jones, coached Jones
to “produce a testimony against Mr. Atkins that did match the
evidence” (Liptak, 2008). After the revelation of this misconduct,
Atkins was re-sentenced to life imprisonment.
Atkins v. Virginia (2002) highlights several issues regarding
society’s beliefs around intelligence. In the Atkins case, the
Supreme Court decided that intellectual disability does affect
decision making and therefore should affect the nature of the
punishment such criminals receive. Where, however, should the lines
of intellectual disability be drawn? In May 2014, the Supreme Court
ruled in a related case (Hall v. Florida) that IQ scores cannot be
used as a final determination of a prisoner’s eligibility for the
death penalty (Roberts, 2014).
The results of intelligence tests follow the bell curve, a graph in the
general shape of a bell. When the bell curve is used in psychological
testing, the graph demonstrates a normal distribution of a trait, in
this case, intelligence, in the human population. Many human traits
naturally follow the bell curve. For example, if you lined up all your
female schoolmates according to height, it is likely that a large
cluster of them would be the average height for an American woman:
5’4”–5’6”. This cluster would fall in the center of the bell curve,
representing the average height for American women
([link]). There would be fewer women who stand
closer to 4’11”. The same would be true for women of above-average
height: those who stand closer to 5’11”. The trick to finding a bell
curve in nature is to use a large sample size. Without a large sample
size, it is less likely that the bell curve will represent the wider
population. A representative sample{: data-type=“term”} is a
subset of the population that accurately represents the general
population. If, for example, you measured the height of the women in
your classroom only, you might not actually have a representative
sample. Perhaps the women’s basketball team wanted to take this course
together, and they are all in your class. Because basketball players
tend to be taller than average, the women in your class may not be a
good representative sample of the population of American women. But if
your sample included all the women at your school, it is likely that
their heights would form a natural bell curve.
{: #Figure_07_05_Bell}
The same principles apply to intelligence tests scores. Individuals earn
a score called an intelligence quotient (IQ). Over the years, different
types of IQ tests have evolved, but the way scores are interpreted
remains the same. The average IQ score on an IQ test is 100. Standard
deviations{: data-type=“term”} describe how data are dispersed in a
population and give context to large data sets. The bell curve uses the
standard deviation to show how all scores are dispersed from the average
score ([link]). In modern IQ testing, one
standard deviation is 15 points. So a score of 85 would be described as
“one standard deviation below the mean.” How would you describe a score
of 115 and a score of 70? Any IQ score that falls within one standard
deviation above and below the mean (between 85 and 115) is considered
average, and 68% of the population has IQ scores in this range. An IQ
score of 130 or above is considered a superior level.
{: #Figure_07_05_Bell2}
Only 2.2% of the population has an IQ score below 70 (American
Psychological Association [APA], 2013). A score of 70 or below indicates
significant cognitive delays. When these are combined with major
deficits in adaptive functioning, a person is diagnosed with having an
intellectual disability (American Association on Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities, 2013). Formerly known as mental retardation,
the accepted term now is intellectual disability, and it has four
subtypes: mild, moderate, severe, and profound
([link]). The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Psychological Disorders lists criteria for each subgroup (APA,
2013).
Characteristics of Cognitive Disorders
Intellectual Disability Subtype
Percentage of Intellectually Disabled Population
Description
Mild
85%
3rd- to 6th-grade skill level in reading, writing, and math; may be
employed and live independently
Moderate
10%
Basic reading and writing skills; functional self-care skills; requires
some oversight
Severe
5%
Functional self-care skills; requires oversight of daily environment and
activities
Profound
<1%
May be able to communicate verbally or nonverbally; requires intensive
oversight
On the other end of the intelligence spectrum are those individuals
whose IQs fall into the highest ranges. Consistent with the bell curve,
about 2% of the population falls into this category. People are
considered gifted if they have an IQ score of 130 or higher, or superior
intelligence in a particular area. Long ago, popular belief suggested
that people of high intelligence were maladjusted. This idea was
disproven through a groundbreaking study of gifted children. In 1921,
Lewis Terman began a longitudinal study of over 1500 children with IQs
over 135 (Terman, 1925). His findings showed that these children became
well-educated, successful adults who were, in fact, well-adjusted
(Terman & Oden, 1947). Additionally, Terman’s study showed that the
subjects were above average in physical build and attractiveness,
dispelling an earlier popular notion that highly intelligent people were
“weaklings.” Some people with very high IQs elect to join Mensa, an
organization dedicated to identifying, researching, and fostering
intelligence. Members must have an IQ score in the top 2% of the
population, and they may be required to pass other exams in their
application to join the group.
Tip
In the past, individuals with IQ scores below 70 and significant
adaptive and social functioning delays were diagnosed with mental
retardation. When this diagnosis was first named, the title held no
social stigma. In time, however, the degrading word “retard” sprang
from this diagnostic term. “Retard” was frequently used as a taunt,
especially among young people, until the words “mentally retarded”
and “retard” became an insult. As such, the DSM-5 now labels this
diagnosis as “intellectual disability.” Many states once had a
Department of Mental Retardation to serve those diagnosed with such
cognitive delays, but most have changed their name to Department of
Developmental Disabilities or something similar in language. The
Social Security Administration still uses the term “mental
retardation” but is considering eliminating it from its programming
(Goad, 2013). Earlier in the chapter, we discussed how language
affects how we think. Do you think changing the title of this
department has any impact on how people regard those with
developmental disabilities? Does a different name give people more
dignity, and if so, how? Does it change the expectations for those
with developmental or cognitive disabilities? Why or why not?
The value of IQ testing is most evident in educational or clinical
settings. Children who seem to be experiencing learning difficulties or
severe behavioral problems can be tested to ascertain whether the
child’s difficulties can be partly attributed to an IQ score that is
significantly different from the mean for her age group. Without IQ
testing—or another measure of intelligence—children and adults needing
extra support might not be identified effectively. In addition, IQ
testing is used in courts to determine whether a defendant has special
or extenuating circumstances that preclude him from participating in
some way in a trial. People also use IQ testing results to seek
disability benefits from the Social Security Administration. While IQ
tests have sometimes been used as arguments in support of insidious
purposes, such as the eugenics movement (Severson, 2011), the following
case study demonstrates the usefulness and benefits of IQ testing.
Candace, a 14-year-old girl experiencing problems at school, was
referred for a court-ordered psychological evaluation. She was in
regular education classes in ninth grade and was failing every subject.
Candace had never been a stellar student but had always been passed to
the next grade. Frequently, she would curse at any of her teachers who
called on her in class. She also got into fights with other students and
occasionally shoplifted. When she arrived for the evaluation, Candace
immediately said that she hated everything about school, including the
teachers, the rest of the staff, the building, and the homework. Her
parents stated that they felt their daughter was picked on, because she
was of a different race than the teachers and most of the other
students. When asked why she cursed at her teachers, Candace replied,
“They only call on me when I don’t know the answer. I don’t want to say,
‘I don’t know’ all of the time and look like an idiot in front of my
friends. The teachers embarrass me.” She was given a battery of tests,
including an IQ test. Her score on the IQ test was 68. What does
Candace’s score say about her ability to excel or even succeed in
regular education classes without assistance?
In this section, we learned about the history of intelligence testing
and some of the challenges regarding intelligence testing. Intelligence
tests began in earnest with Binet; Wechsler later developed intelligence
tests that are still in use today: the WAIS-IV and WISC-V. The Bell
curve shows the range of scores that encompass average intelligence as
well as standard deviations.
Question
In order for a test to be normed and standardized it must be
tested on ________.
a group of same-age peers
a representative sample
children with mental disabilities
children of average intelligence {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The mean score for a person with an average IQ is ________.
70
130
85
100 {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Who developed the IQ test most widely used today?
Sir Francis Galton
Alfred Binet
Louis Terman
David Wechsler {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The DSM-5 now uses ________ as a diagnostic label for what was
once referred to as mental retardation.
Why do you think different theorists have defined intelligence in
different ways?
Since cognitive processes are complex, ascertaining them in a
measurable way is challenging. Researchers have taken different
approaches to define intelligence in an attempt to comprehensively
describe and measure it.
Compare and contrast the benefits of the Stanford-Binet IQ test
and Wechsler’s IQ tests.
The Wechsler-Bellevue IQ test combined a series of subtests that
tested verbal and nonverbal skills into a single IQ test in order
to get a reliable, descriptive score of intelligence. While the
Stanford-Binet test was normed and standardized, it focused more
on verbal skills than variations in other cognitive processes.
In thinking about the case of Candace described earlier, do you
think that Candace benefitted or suffered as a result of
consistently being passed on to the next grade?
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe how
genetics and environment affect intelligence * Explain the
relationship between IQ scores and socioeconomic status * Describe
the difference between a learning disability and a developmental
disorder
A young girl, born of teenage parents, lives with her grandmother in
rural Mississippi. They are poor—in serious poverty—but they do their
best to get by with what they have. She learns to read when she is just
3 years old. As she grows older, she longs to live with her mother, who
now resides in Wisconsin. She moves there at the age of 6 years. At 9
years of age, she is raped. During the next several years, several
different male relatives repeatedly molest her. Her life unravels. She
turns to drugs and sex to fill the deep, lonely void inside her. Her
mother then sends her to Nashville to live with her father, who imposes
strict behavioral expectations upon her, and over time, her wild life
settles once again. She begins to experience success in school, and at
19 years old, becomes the youngest and first African-American female
news anchor (“Dates and Events,” n.d.). The woman—Oprah Winfrey—goes on
to become a media giant known for both her intelligence and her empathy.
Where does high intelligence come from? Some researchers believe that
intelligence is a trait inherited from a person’s parents. Scientists
who research this topic typically use twin studies to determine the
heritabilitypastehere of intelligence. The
Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart is one of the most well-known twin
studies. In this investigation, researchers found that identical twins
raised together and identical twins raised apart exhibit a higher
correlation between their IQ scores than siblings or fraternal twins
raised together (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, & Tellegen, 1990). The
findings from this study reveal a genetic component to intelligence
([link]). At the same time, other
psychologists believe that intelligence is shaped by a child’s
developmental environment. If parents were to provide their children
with intellectual stimuli from before they are born, it is likely that
they would absorb the benefits of that stimulation, and it would be
reflected in intelligence levels.
{:
#Figure_07_06_Correlations}
The reality is that aspects of each idea are probably correct. In fact,
one study suggests that although genetics seem to be in control of the
level of intelligence, the environmental influences provide both
stability and change to trigger manifestation of cognitive abilities
(Bartels, Rietveld, Van Baal, & Boomsma, 2002). Certainly, there are
behaviors that support the development of intelligence, but the genetic
component of high intelligence should not be ignored. As with all
heritable traits, however, it is not always possible to isolate how and
when high intelligence is passed on to the next generation.
Range of Reaction{: data-type=“term”} is the theory that each
person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his or her
genetic makeup. According to this idea, your genetic potential is a
fixed quantity, but whether you reach your full intellectual potential
is dependent upon the environmental stimulation you experience,
especially in childhood. Think about this scenario: A couple adopts a
child who has average genetic intellectual potential. They raise her in
an extremely stimulating environment. What will happen to the couple’s
new daughter? It is likely that the stimulating environment will improve
her intellectual outcomes over the course of her life. But what happens
if this experiment is reversed? If a child with an extremely strong
genetic background is placed in an environment that does not stimulate
him: What happens? Interestingly, according to a longitudinal study of
highly gifted individuals, it was found that “the two extremes of
optimal and pathological experience are both represented
disproportionately in the backgrounds of creative individuals”; however,
those who experienced supportive family environments were more likely to
report being happy (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, p. 187).
Another challenge to determining origins of high intelligence is the
confounding nature of our human social structures. It is troubling to
note that some ethnic groups perform better on IQ tests than others—and
it is likely that the results do not have much to do with the quality of
each ethnic group’s intellect. The same is true for socioeconomic
status. Children who live in poverty experience more pervasive, daily
stress than children who do not worry about the basic needs of safety,
shelter, and food. These worries can negatively affect how the brain
functions and develops, causing a dip in IQ scores. Mark Kishiyama and
his colleagues determined that children living in poverty demonstrated
reduced prefrontal brain functioning comparable to children with damage
to the lateral prefrontal cortex (Kishyama, Boyce, Jimenez, Perry, &
Knight, 2009).
The debate around the foundations and influences on intelligence
exploded in 1969, when an educational psychologist named Arthur Jensen
published the article “How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Achievement” in
the Harvard Educational Review. Jensen had administered IQ tests to
diverse groups of students, and his results led him to the conclusion
that IQ is determined by genetics. He also posited that intelligence was
made up of two types of abilities: Level I and Level II. In his theory,
Level I is responsible for rote memorization, whereas Level II is
responsible for conceptual and analytical abilities. According to his
findings, Level I remained consistent among the human race. Level II,
however, exhibited differences among ethnic groups (Modgil & Routledge,
1987). Jensen’s most controversial conclusion was that Level II
intelligence is prevalent among Asians, then Caucasians, then African
Americans. Robert Williams was among those who called out racial bias in
Jensen’s results (Williams, 1970).
Obviously, Jensen’s interpretation of his own data caused an intense
response in a nation that continued to grapple with the effects of
racism (Fox, 2012). However, Jensen’s ideas were not solitary or unique;
rather, they represented one of many examples of psychologists asserting
racial differences in IQ and cognitive ability. In fact, Rushton and
Jensen (2005) reviewed three decades worth of research on the
relationship between race and cognitive ability. Jensen’s belief in the
inherited nature of intelligence and the validity of the IQ test to be
the truest measure of intelligence are at the core of his conclusions.
If, however, you believe that intelligence is more than Levels I and II,
or that IQ tests do not control for socioeconomic and cultural
differences among people, then perhaps you can dismiss Jensen’s
conclusions as a single window that looks out on the complicated and
varied landscape of human intelligence.
In a related story, parents of African American students filed a case
against the State of California in 1979, because they believed that the
testing method used to identify students with learning disabilities was
culturally unfair as the tests were normed and standardized using white
children (Larry P. v. Riles). The testing method used by the state
disproportionately identified African American children as mentally
retarded. This resulted in many students being incorrectly classified as
“mentally retarded.” According to a summary of the case, Larry P. v.
Riles:
In violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, and the Education for All Handicapped
Children Act of 1975, defendants have utilized standardized
intelligence tests that are racially and culturally biased, have a
discriminatory impact against black children, and have not been
validated for the purpose of essentially permanent placements of
black children into educationally dead-end, isolated, and
stigmatizing classes for the so-called educable mentally retarded.
Further, these federal laws have been violated by defendants’ general
use of placement mechanisms that, taken together, have not been
validated and result in a large over-representation of black children
in the special E.M.R. classes. (Larry P. v. Riles, par. 6)
Once again, the limitations of intelligence testing were revealed.
Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders that affect different
areas of cognition, particularly language or reading. It should be
pointed out that learning disabilities are not the same thing as
intellectual disabilities. Learning disabilities are considered specific
neurological impairments rather than global intellectual or
developmental disabilities. A person with a language disability has
difficulty understanding or using spoken language, whereas someone with
a reading disability, such as dyslexia, has difficulty processing what
he or she is reading.
Often, learning disabilities are not recognized until a child reaches
school age. One confounding aspect of learning disabilities is that they
often affect children with average to above-average intelligence. At the
same time, learning disabilities tend to exhibit comorbidity with other
disorders, like attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Anywhere between 30–70% of individuals with diagnosed cases of ADHD also
have some sort of learning disability (Riccio, Gonzales, & Hynd, 1994).
Let’s take a look at two examples of common learning disabilities:
dysgraphia and dyslexia.
Children with dysgraphia{: data-type=“term”} have a learning
disability that results in a struggle to write legibly. The physical
task of writing with a pen and paper is extremely challenging for the
person. These children often have extreme difficulty putting their
thoughts down on paper (Smits-Engelsman & Van Galen, 1997). This
difficulty is inconsistent with a person’s IQ. That is, based on the
child’s IQ and/or abilities in other areas, a child with dysgraphia
should be able to write, but can’t. Children with dysgraphia may also
have problems with spatial abilities.
Students with dysgraphia need academic accommodations to help them
succeed in school. These accommodations can provide students with
alternative assessment opportunities to demonstrate what they know
(Barton, 2003). For example, a student with dysgraphia might be
permitted to take an oral exam rather than a traditional
paper-and-pencil test. Treatment is usually provided by an occupational
therapist, although there is some question as to how effective such
treatment is (Zwicker, 2005).
Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children. An
individual with dyslexia{: data-type=“term”} exhibits an inability
to correctly process letters. The neurological mechanism for sound
processing does not work properly in someone with dyslexia. As a result,
dyslexic children may not understand sound-letter correspondence. A
child with dyslexia may mix up letters within words and sentences—letter
reversals, such as those shown in [link],
are a hallmark of this learning disability—or skip whole words while
reading. A dyslexic child may have difficulty spelling words correctly
while writing. Because of the disordered way that the brain processes
letters and sound, learning to read is a frustrating experience. Some
dyslexic individuals cope by memorizing the shapes of most words, but
they never actually learn to read (Berninger, 2008).
Genetics and environment affect intelligence and the challenges of
certain learning disabilities. The intelligence levels of all
individuals seem to benefit from rich stimulation in their early
environments. Highly intelligent individuals, however, may have a
built-in resiliency that allows them to overcome difficult obstacles in
their upbringing. Learning disabilities can cause major challenges for
children who are learning to read and write. Unlike developmental
disabilities, learning disabilities are strictly neurological in nature
and are not related to intelligence levels. Students with dyslexia, for
example, may have extreme difficulty learning to read, but their
intelligence levels are typically average or above average.
Question
Where does high intelligence come from?
genetics
environment
both A and B
neither A nor B {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Arthur Jensen believed that ________.
genetics was solely responsible for intelligence
environment was solely responsible for intelligence
intelligence level was determined by race
IQ tests do not take socioeconomic status into account {:
type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
What is a learning disability?
a developmental disorder
a neurological disorder
an emotional disorder
an intellectual disorder {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which of the following statements is true?
Poverty always affects whether individuals are able to reach
their full intellectual potential.
An individual’s intelligence is determined solely by the
intelligence levels of his siblings.
The environment in which an individual is raised is the
strongest predictor of her future intelligence
There are many factors working together to influence an
individual’s intelligence level. {: type=“a”}
What evidence exists for a genetic component to an individual’s
IQ?
Twin studies are one strong indication that IQ has a genetic
component. Another indication is anecdotal evidence in the form of
stories about highly intelligent individuals who come from
difficult backgrounds yet still become highly successful adults.
Describe the relationship between learning disabilities and
intellectual disabilities to intelligence.
Learning disabilities are specific neurological problems within
the brain and are separate from intelligence. Intellectual
disabilities are pervasive and related to intelligence.
each person’s response to the environment is unique based on his
or her genetic make-up
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Official MRCPsych Syllabus includes the following on memory:
Influences upon and optimal conditions for encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Primary working memory storage capacity and the principle of chunking.
Semantic episodic and skills memories and other aspects of long-term/secondary memory.
The process of forgetting.
Emotional factors and retrieval.
Distortion, inference, schemata, and elaboration in relation.
The relevance of this to memory disorders and their assessment.
A photograph shows a camera and a pile of photographs.
We may be top-notch learners, but if we don’t have a way to store what
we’ve learned, what good is the knowledge we’ve gained?
Take a few minutes to imagine what your day might be like if you could
not remember anything you had learned. You would have to figure out how
to get dressed. What clothing should you wear, and how do buttons and
zippers work? You would need someone to teach you how to brush your
teeth and tie your shoes. Who would you ask for help with these tasks,
since you wouldn’t recognize the faces of these people in your house?
Wait … is this even your house? Uh oh, your stomach begins to rumble
and you feel hungry. You’d like something to eat, but you don’t know
where the food is kept or even how to prepare it. Oh dear, this is
getting confusing. Maybe it would be best just go back to bed. A bed . .
. what is a bed?
We have an amazing capacity for memory, but how, exactly, do we process
and store information? Are there different kinds of memory, and if so,
what characterizes the different types? How, exactly, do we retrieve our
memories? And why do we forget? This chapter will explore these
questions as we learn about memory.
Abel, M., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2013). Sleep can reduce proactive
interference. Memory, 22(4), 332–339.
doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.785570. Retrieved from
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Anderson, N. S. (1969). The influence of acoustic similarity on serial
recall of letter sequences. Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 21(3), 248–255.
Anderson, R. C. (1984). Role of the reader’s schema in comprehension,
learning, and memory. In R. C. Anderson, J. Osborn, & R. J. Tierney
(Eds.), Learning to read in American schools: Basal Readers and
Content Texts (pp. 243–257). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Describe and distinguish between procedural and declarative memory and semantic and episodic memory
…
One of the major elements that separate humans from animals is our ability to store, recall, and use complex information: memory.
Memory refers to the formation, retention, and retrieval of learned associations, stored information, and skills.
Several models of memory have been proposed to describe the various systems, processes
and subtypes of memory.
Broadbent’s Model (1958) describes three memory storing systems, S-system for sensory memory,
P-system for short-term memories and and a long-term store.
Atkinson and Shriffen’s Model 1968, also known as multi-store model or
modal model of memory, also describes such three systems
respectively termed, sensory memory,
short-term memory and long-term memory stores; the model also described an executive control process
that controlled the flow of information between these stores.
These two models deal largely with memory storage systems classifed based on the duration
they can store information and their maximum storage capacity but do not describe the processing
of information, such as how information is encoded, manipulated, elaborated or retrived from these
stores.
The processing of memory is broadly
described by the information processing model. Information processing models involve
an input system to receive information, a central processing system that receives information
from the input system, processess it and passess the final product to on to an output system, such as our longterm
memory system, which stores this information for later recall.
The levels of processing theory and Baddely’s model are
information processing models, as is the generally accepted memory processing model.
Tulving’s Model of memory describes describes different types of memories based on their nature.
Episodic memories are memories for events, while procedural memories involve motor skills.
Beginning with an introduction to memory processing, we will describe all these models in detail in this section.
The process of memory is best seen as an analog process of
how a computer stores memory. A computer receives information via an input device, such as a
keyboard, which it processes through its central processing unit, after which it can save
it to its solid-state drive for long-term storage. The computer can then access and retrieve
this information from the drive when needed.
Human memory processes work similarly; to
encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods.
A diagram shows three boxes, placed in a row from left to right,
respectively titled “Encoding,” “Storage,” and “Retrieval.” One
right-facing arrow connects “Encoding” to “Storage” and another connects
“Storage” to “Retrieval.”
See also
Watch this video
for more information on some unexpected facts about memory.
We get information into our brains through a process called encoding , which is
the input of information
into the memory system. We receive sensory data from the
environment in raw form; until it is processed, this data is meaningless. Inside the brain,
the data undergoes extensive processing and integration, that makes the data meaningful.
With encoding, the brain forms memory codes for the perceived information.
We can then organize the information
with other similar information and connect new concepts to existing
concepts. Encoding information occurs through automatic processing and
effortful processing.
If someone asks you what you ate for lunch today, more than likely you
could recall this information quite easily. This is known as automatic processing,
or the encoding of details like
time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words. Automatic processing
is usually done without any conscious awareness. Recalling the last time
you studied for a test is another example of automatic processing. But
what about the actual test material you studied? It probably required a
lot of work and attention on your part in order to encode that
information. This is known as effortful processing ([link]).
What are the most effective ways to ensure that important memories are well encoded?
See (Fig. 30)
An illustration that shows how encoding can be enriched: visual imagery, elaboration,
making the information self-relevant, and finally increasing motivation to remember.
Even a simple sentence is easier to recall when it is
meaningful (Anderson, 1984) [1]
Read the following sentences (Bransford & McCarrell, 1974), then
look away and count backward from 30 by threes
to zero, and then try to write down the sentences (no peeking back at
this page!).
The notes were sour because the seams split.
The voyage wasn’t delayed because the bottle shattered.
The haystack was important because the cloth ripped.
How well did you do? By themselves, the statements that you wrote down
were most likely confusing and difficult for you to recall. Now, try
writing them again, using the following prompts: bagpipe, ship
christening, and parachutist. Next count backward from 40 by fours,
then check yourself to see how well you recalled the sentences this
time. You can see that the sentences are now much more memorable because
each of the sentences was placed in context. Material is far better
encoded when you make it meaningful.
Elaborative Rehearsal
Material is well-encoded when it is well-integrated with your current knowledge
and concepts. For instance, think about
the prevalence of schizophrenia, 0.7% in the general population. Now, we can
make it more elaborate by rounding it off to 1 percent or one out of every hundred.
If you know the prevalence of OCD is about 2%, you can make it even more
meaningful; OCD is twice as common as schizophrenia, in other words, schizophrenia is
almost as prevalent.
While schizophrenia is equally frequent in both genders, OCD
is two times more frequent in women, however, ie, men
account only for 1/3rd of the cases of OCD. Thus,
in men, OCD may not be more prevalent than schizophrenia. This is called elaborative rehearsal
in terms of levels of processing approach (see below).
There are three types of encoding. The encoding of words and their
meaning is known as semantic encoding. It was
first demonstrated by William Bousfield (1935) [2]
in an experiment in which
he asked people to memorize words. The 60 words were divided
into 4 categories of meaning, although the participants did not know
this because the words were randomly presented. When they were asked to
remember the words, they tended to recall them in categories, showing
that they paid attention to the meanings of the words as they learned
them.
Visual or structural encoding is the encoding of images, and
acoustic encoding is the encoding of sounds,
words in particular. To see how visual encoding works, read over this
list of words: car, level, dog, truth, book, value. If you were asked
later to recall the words from this list, which ones do you think you’d
most likely remember? You would probably have an easier time recalling
the words car, dog, and book, and a more difficult time recalling
the words level, truth, and value. Why is this? Because you can
recall images (mental pictures) more easily than words alone. When you
read the words car, dog, and book you created images of these things
in your mind. These are concrete, high-imagery words. On the other hand,
abstract words like level, truth, and value are low-imagery words.
High-imagery words are encoded both visually and semantically (Paivio,1986) , thus building a stronger memory.
Tip
Encoding may be enhanced with visual imagery. Encoding of hypothetical concepts,
like anger, high intelligence, and strong memory etc, for example, may be enriched by
thinking about someone with these traits one knows about.
Some people, especially children have an especially strong capacity for visual encoding
due to their ability to experience eidetic imagery. Eidetic imagery refers to the
persistence of mental images with photographic quality. For example, if you show them a picture
in which a cat is sitting over the branch of a tree while a girl is standing, wearing a colorful
dress, and pointing at the sky, they may be able to mentally count the
number of stripes on the tail
of the cat after the photo has been removed from their sight. This ability has been estimated
to occur in up to 5% of children.
Now let’s turn our attention to acoustic or phonemic encoding. You are driving in
your car and a song comes on the radio that you haven’t heard in at
least 10 years, but you sing along, recalling every word. In the United
States, children often learn the alphabet through song, and they learn
the number of days in each month through rhyme:
“Thirty days hath September,
April, June, and November;
All the rest have thirty-one,
Save February, with twenty-eight days clear,
And twenty-nine each leap year.”
These lessons are easy to remember because of acoustic encoding.
We encode the sounds the words make.
This is one of the
reasons why much of what we teach young children is done through song,
rhyme, and rhythm.
Tip
Acoustic encoding may be enriched with the help of rhymes.
Which of the three types of encoding do you think would give you the
best memory of verbal information? Some years ago, psychologists Fergus
Craik and Endel Tulving (1975) [3]
conducted a series of experiments to find
out.
Participants were given words along with questions about them. The
questions required the participants to process the words at one of the
three levels. The visual processing questions included such things as
asking the participants about the font of the letters. The acoustic
processing questions asked the participants about the sound or rhyming
of the words, and the semantic processing questions asked the
participants about the meaning of the words. After participants were
presented with the words and questions, they were given an unexpected
recall or recognition task.
Words that had been encoded semantically were better remembered than
those encoded visually or acoustically.
Based on experiments like these, Craik and Tulving proposed that deeper processing of verbal information
enhances their retention, a proposal called the level of information
processing approach. The depth of information processing was based on the meaningfulness of the information.
Visual encoding or structural encoding is the least meaningful and regarded as the shallowest level,
whilst semantic encoding is the deepest.
Semantic encoding involves a
deeper level of processing than the shallower visual or acoustic
encoding. Craik and Tulving concluded that we process verbal information
best through semantic encoding, especially if we apply what is called
the self-reference effect.
The self-reference effect is the tendency for an individual to have better
memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material
that has less personal relevance [4].
Once the information has been encoded, we have to somehow retain it. Our
brains take the encoded information and place it in storage.
Storage is the creation of a permanent record
of information.
In order for a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it
has to pass through three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory,
and finally Long-Term Memory. These stages were first proposed by
Richard Atkinson and Richard
Shiffrin (1968). Their model of
human memory ([Figure]), called
Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S), is based on the belief that we process memories
in the same way that a computer processes information.
A flow diagram consists of four boxes with connecting arrows.
The first
box is labeled “sensory input.” An arrow leads to the second box, which
is labeled “sensory memory.” An arrow leads to the third box which is
labeled short-term memory (STM). An arrow points to the fourth box,
labeled long-term memory (LTM), and an arrow points in the reverse
direction from the fourth to the third box. Above the short-term memory
box, an arrow leaves the top-right of the box and curves around to point
back to the top-left of the box; this arrow is labeled “rehearsal.” Both
the “sensory memory” and “short-term memory” boxes have an arrow beneath
them pointing to the text “information not transferred is lost.”
In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment first
reach sensory memory a storage system for
sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes. It holds the information
for a brief duration of up to a fraction of seconds, without processing it.
Thus, it helps filter the irrelevant information we are constantly bombarded
with. Without this filter, we would not be able make process and
make sense of the world around.
What was your professor wearing the last class period? Unless
someone is particularly attentive to people’s dressing, chances are, it wont be remembered.
This system discards sensory information about sights, sounds, smells, and even
textures unlesss there is selective focus of attention to it.
When we selectively attend to a certain information, it will move into our
short-term memory system. For example, while reading this passage, your selective attention is
likely focused on the information in this passage, and you are likely to encode it into your
working (short-term) memory, where it can be processed for further comprehension. Most of what
else you have heard, felt on your skin, or seen, is discraded by your brain.
Stroop Effect
One study of sensory memory researched the significance of valuable
information on short-term memory storage. J. R. Stroop discovered a
memory phenomenon in the 1930s: you will name a color more easily if it
appears printed in that color, which is called the Stroop effect.
In other words, the word “red” will be
named more quickly, regardless of the color, the word appears in, than
any word that is colored red.
Stroop Colour Word Test, a popular neuropsychological tool
designed to assess a subject’s ability to control cognitive interference
is based on stroop effect.
Try an experiment: name the colours of the
words you are given in (fig. 32). Do not read
the words, but say the color the word is printed in. For example, upon
seeing the word “yellow” in green print, you should say “green,” not
“yellow.” This experiment is fun, but it’s not as easy as it seems.
Several names of colors appear in a font color that is different from
the name of the color. For example, the word “red” is colored blue.
Sensory memory can occur in any sensory modality; iconic memory, which corresponds to vision
and echoic memory, which corresponds to audition, are the two most studied subtypes
of sensory memory. Iconic memory lasts upto 1 second
while echoic memory may be retained for 3-4 seconds.
Short-term memory (STM) is a temporary storage
system that processes incoming sensory memory; sometimes, it is called
working memory or attention-span. Short-term memory takes
information from sensory memory
and sometimes connects that memory to something already in long-term
memory. Short-term memory storage lasts about {bdg-info}`20 seconds`. George Miller
(1956) [5], in his research on the
capacity of memory, found that most
people can retain {bdg-info}`about 7 items` in STM. Some remember 5, some 9, so he
called the capacity of STM 7 plus or minus 2. However, new research has
shown that the capacity may be greater.
One way to improve the capacity of working memory, or attention span is by chunking
information. Information can be grouped in a way that the number of chunks is reduced for
your brain thus allowing it to be processed by your brain, comprehended or stored
in your longterm memory. Example: which one is easier to commit to brain
among 3459148231 or 345 9148 231?
Attention, Short-term and Working memory.
The concept of “short-term memory” in Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model roughly equates to our
attention span or working memory. It is the capacity of an individual to hold
information actively in mind for mental manipulation. However, when we use the
term working memory, as in
Baddeley’s model, we also include its central executive system. Thus, working memory
is our capacity to hold information actively in mind and our ability to mentally
manipulate this information.
Short-term memory testing, as performed during mental state examination, however, is a
test of new learning (see below).
The dual memory theory views short-term memory as the information in a
computer’s RAM (random access memory) —a document, a spreadsheet, or a web page.
Information here will either be saved onto a memory drive or discarded. Likewise, the
information in short-term memory goes to long-term memory (by rehearsal)
or is discarded (by displacement). The step of rehearsal, the
conscious repetition of information to be remembered, to move STM into
long-term memory, is called memory consolidation.
In terms of levels of processing
approach, this concept is termed maintenance rehearsal. But it also
describes another type of reherasal that can better
enhance memory retention: elaborative rehearsal. In elaborative rehearsal, information
is linked with the information already in mind.
Error
Rehearsal of information in mind helps transform short-term memories
into long-term. However, unlike as described in Atkinson’s model, it is not the only
mechanism.
Baddeley and Hitch (1974),:footcite:p:baddeleyWorkingMemory1974
have proposed a model where short-term memory has
different forms. In this model, storing memories in short-term memory is
like opening different files on a computer and adding information. The
type of short-term memory (or computer file) depends on the type of
information received. There are memories in visual-spatial form, as well
as memories of spoken or written material, and they are stored in three
short-term systems: a visuospatial sketchpad, an episodic buffer, and a
phonological loop. The phonological loop stores acoustic information, while
the visuospatial sketchpad holds spatial and visual information. These two
systems are shown to be controlled by different brain areas; more specifically,
the visuospatial information is controlled by the right hemisphere and the
acoustic information by the left hemisphere. The episodic buffer helps with the
integration of visual and auditory information in the working memory and; the retrieval
and storing of information between the working memory and long-term memory stores.
According to Baddeley and Hitch, a central executive
part of memory supervises or controls the flow of information to and
from the three short-term systems.
Real-world Application: Making Most of Working Memory Capacity
Due to its limited capacity, new information entering the
working memory store replaces the existing chunks of information. Thus, working memory
function is impaired by unhelpful environmental stimuli and
intrusive thoughts.
To help enhance the processing of information by the working memory,
a task that requires comprehension or memorization should be performed in an environment
with least distractions; anxiety, depression or other situations that worsen or cause
intrusive thoughts should be identified and managed accordingly.
Also note how visual and verbal information has different systems in the working memory
model proposed by Baddely. This is how visual imagery aids verbal information, for instance
while watching or presenting a slideshow. The audience would find it much more easier
to process and comprehend a slideshow with figures, graphs, images etc than one with pure
text.
Clinical-correlate: Digit Span Test
To explore the capacity and duration of short-term
memory (working memory or attention span), read the strings of random numbers
([link]) out loud to the subject, beginning each
string by saying, “Ready?” and ending each by saying, “Recall,” at which
point the subject should try to write down the string of numbers from memory.
A series of numbers includes two rows, with six numbers in each row.
From left to right, the numbers increase from four digits to five, six,
seven, eight, and nine digits. The first row includes “9754,” “68259,”
“913825,” “5316842,” “86951372,” and “719384273,” and the second row
includes “6419,” “67148,” “648327,” “5963827,” “51739826,” and
“163875942.”
Note the longest string at which they got the series correct. For most
people, this will be close to 7, Miller’s famous 7 plus or minus 2.
Recall is somewhat better for random numbers than for random letters
(Jacobs, 1887), and also often slightly better for the information we hear
(acoustic encoding) rather than see (visual encoding) (Anderson, 1969).
While attention span or working memory concerns our capacity to hold and actively
manipulate information in mind, the ability to sustain attention over
time is concentration. Concentration is clinically tested by serial 7s. In this test,
we ask a patient to start with 100 and keep subtracting 7s from the remainder. They are
allowed to continue five times. The number of correct answers is noted and scored.
For example, 2 correct answers are scored as 2/5.
Impairment of attention is characteristic of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
Children with ADHD are often very distractible and can not sustain their attention for long
especially on boring activties with higher cognitive load (reading and comprehension).
Attention and concentration is also often impaired in patients with anxiety and depression;
patients with these disorders are often preoccupied with characteristic negative thoughts
which they can hardly help control. These thoughts make it very difficult for them to sustain
their attention for long.
Impairment of attention is also characteristic of delirium and Lewy body dementia.
Long-term memory (LTM) is the persistent
storage of information. Unlike short-term memory, the storage capacity
of LTM has no limits. It encompasses all the things you can remember
that happened more than just a few minutes ago to all of the things that
you can remember that happened days, weeks, and years ago. In keeping
with the computer analogy, the information in your LTM would be like the
information you have saved on the hard drive. It isn’t there on your
desktop (your short-term memory), but you can pull up this information
when you want it, at least most of the time. Not all long-term memories
are strong memories. Some memories can only be recalled through prompts.
For example, you might easily recall a fact— “What is the capital of the
United States?”—or a procedure—“How do you ride a bike?”—but you might
struggle to recall the name of the restaurant you had dinner when you
were on vacation in France last summer. A prompt, such as that the
restaurant was named after its owner, who spoke to you about your shared
interest in soccer, may help you recall the name of the restaurant.
Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit
([link]). Understanding the different types
is important because a person’s age or particular types of brain trauma
or disorders can leave certain types of LTM intact while having
disastrous consequences for other types.
Explicit memories are those we consciously try to remember and recall.
For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam, the material
you are learning will be part of your explicit memory. This type of memory is impaired in
people with amnesia.
Implicit memories are memories that are not
part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviours. Implicit memories
are unimpaired in patients with amnesia.
Note
Sometimes, but not always, the terms explicit memory and declarative memory
are used interchangeably. Likewise, implicit memory is also called non-declarative memory.
The box in the top row is
labeled “long-term memory”; a line from the box separates into two lines
leading to two boxes on the second row, labeled “explicit (declarative)”
and “implicit (non-declarative).” From each of the second-row boxes,
lines split and lead to two additional boxes. From the “explicit” box
are two boxes labeled “episodic (experienced events)” and “semantic
(knowledge and concepts).” From the “implicit” box are two boxes labeled
“procedural (skills and actions)” and “emotional conditioning.
Procedural memory is a type of implicit
memory: it stores information about how to do things. It is the memory
for skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a
car, and how to swim the crawl (freestyle) stroke. If you are learning how
to swim freestyle, you practice the stroke: how to move your arms, how
to turn your head to alternate breathing from side to side, and how to
kick your legs. You would practice this many times until you become good
at it. Once you learn how to swim freestyle and your body knows how to
move through the water, you will never forget how to swim freestyle,
even if you do not swim for a couple of decades. Similarly, if you
present an accomplished guitarist with a guitar, even if he has not
played in a long time, he will still be able to play quite well. These memories are
least affected in early dementia and retained until later stages.
Priming and emotional memories are also non-declarative memories. Priming occurs
when past experience with certain stimuli increases the speed or accuracy of identifying
and naming
those stimuli. Emotional memories involve the emotional aspects of things and events.
This occurs
through conditioning, especially classical conditioning. For example, if an event or a thing
is repeatedly experienced in the presence of another pleasant or unpleasant stimuli, it will
automatically arouse those feelings in the future even.
Caution
Subliminal messages are used in manipulative tactics to influence later decision-making.
For example, if you are exposed to the number 79 repeatedly, you are likely to choose
this number from a list of random numbers, without consciously being aware of how you
were primed to choose this.
Declarative memory has to do with the storage
of facts and events we experienced. Explicit (declarative)
memory has two parts: semantic memory and episodic memory.
Semantic memories relate to language and knowledge about language. An
example would be the question “what does argumentative mean?” Stored
in our semantic memory is knowledge about
words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts. For example,
the following questions test semantic memory:
Who was the first President of the United States?
What is democracy?
What is the longest river in the world?
Semantic memories may be tested clinically by asking patients to name an object (shown to them)
such as a pencil, asking about the function of an object (what do we use a pencil for?)
Semantic dementia is a subtype of frontotemporal dementia characterized by
a progressive cognitive and language decline,
mainly involving comprehension of words and semantic processing.
Despite the loss of word meaning, their fluency, phonology, and syntax remain intact.
Semantic memory deficits may also occur in patients with Alzheimer’s disease evident
as word-finding difficulties and naming deficits.
Episodic memory is information about events we
have personally experienced. The concept of episodic memory was first
proposed about 40 years ago (Tulving, 1972). [6]
Since then, Tulving and
others have looked at the scientific evidence and reformulated the theory.
Currently, scientists believe that episodic memory is memory about
happenings in particular places at particular times, the what, where,
and when of an event (Tulving, 2002). [7]
It involves the recollection of visual
imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity (Hassabis & Maguire,
1) [8].
Episodic memories are of two types, retrospective
(memory of past events) and prospective (memory of events coming
in future)
Clinical-correlate: Hyperthymesia
Can You Remember Everything You Ever Did or Said?
Episodic memories are also called autobiographical memories. Let’s
quickly test your autobiographical memory. What were you wearing
exactly five years ago today? What did you eat for lunch on April 10,
2009? You probably find it difficult, if not impossible, to answer
these questions. Can you remember every event you have experienced
over the course of your life—meals, conversations, clothing choices,
weather conditions, and so on? Most likely none of us could even come
close to answering these questions; however, American actress Marilu
Henner, best known for the
television show Taxi, can remember. She has an amazing and highly
superior autobiographical memory ([Fig. %s]).
Very few people can recall events in this way; right now, only 12
known individuals have this ability, and only a few have been studied [9]
. And although hyperthymesia normally appears in adolescence, two
children in the United States appear to have memories from well
before their tenth birthdays.
…
See also
Watch these Part 1
and Part 2 video
clips on superior autobiographical memory from the television news
show 60 Minutes.
So you have worked hard to encode (via effortful processing) and store
some important information for your upcoming final exam. How do you get
that information back out of storage when you need it? The act of
getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious
awareness is known as retrieval. This would be
similar to finding and opening a paper you had previously saved on your
computer’s hard drive. Now it’s back on your desktop, and you can work
with it again. Our ability to retrieve information from long-term memory
is vital to our everyday functioning. You must be able to retrieve
information from memory in order to do everything from knowing how to
brush your hair and teeth, to driving to work, to knowing how to perform
your job once you get there.
There are three ways you can retrieve information out of your long-term
memory storage system: recall, recognition, and relearning.
Recall is what we most often think about when
we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access information
without cues. For example, you would use recall for an essay test.
Recognition happens when you identify
information that you have previously learned after encountering it
again. It involves a process of comparison. When you take a
multiple-choice test, you are relying on recognition to help you choose
the correct answer. Here is another example. Let’s say you graduated
from high school 10 years ago, and you have returned to your hometown
for your 10-year reunion. You may not be able to recall all of your
classmates, but you recognize many of them based on their yearbook
photos.
Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP) is a type of state-dependent memory
specifically showing that memory performance is not only determined by the
depth of processing, but by the relationship between how information is
initially encoded and how it is later retrieved. For example, if you study an MCQ exam,
you will perform poorly on a test of recall, eg a short-answer questions and vice versa.
Transfer Appropriate Processing
Classic Experiment
Study participants were made to encode a certain word by making either a phonological
or semantic judgment about each item on a word list. The learning was incidental,
participants were not told that they
would have to later recall the words.This constrained (limits) the learning strategies used.
The final test was either a standard recognition test for the learned words. or a
rhyming recognition test for learned words e.g., Was a word presented that
rhymed with “regal”?. Overall correction rates on recognition and rhyming
tests following either sentence or rhyme-oriented task matched the
original processing task.
The take-home message was that when the processing at encoding matches the processing
at retrieval, performance will be better.It only makes sense to talk about a
learning method’s efficiency in the context
of the type of final test.
Standard recognition test, Deeper processing led to better performance.
Rhyming recognition test: The shallower rhyme-based encoding task
led to better performance because it matched the demands of the testing situation.
Results
Encoding:
Recognition
test:
Rhyming
test:
Does ____ rhyme with
legal? (eagle)
63%
49%
Does ____ have feathers?
(eagle)
84%
33%
Standard recognition test:
Deeper processing led to
better performance.
Rhyming recognition test:
The shallower rhyme-based
encoding task led to
better performance because
it matched the demands of
the testing situation.
The third form of retrieval is relearning, and
it’s just what it sounds like. It involves learning information that you
previously learned. Whitney took Spanish in high school, but after high
school she did not have the opportunity to speak Spanish. Whitney is now
31, and her company has offered her an opportunity to work in their
Mexico City office. In order to prepare herself, she enrolls in a
Spanish course at the local community center. She’s surprised at how
quickly she’s able to pick up the language after not speaking it for 13
years; this is an example of relearning.
Memory is a system or process that stores what we learn for future use.
Our memory has three basic functions: encoding, storing, and retrieving
information. Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory
system through automatic or effortful processing. Storage is retention
of the information, and retrieval is the act of getting information out
of storage and into conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and
relearning. The idea that information is processed through three memory
systems is called the Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S) model of memory. First,
environmental stimuli enter our sensory memory for a period of less than
a second to a few seconds. Those stimuli that we notice and pay
attention to then move into short-term memory (also called working
memory). According to the A-S model, if we rehearse this information,
then it moves into long-term memory for permanent storage. Other models
like that of Baddeley and Hitch suggest there is more of a feedback loop
between short-term memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory has a
practically limitless storage capacity and is divided into implicit and
explicit memory. Finally, retrieval is the act of getting memories out
of storage and back into conscious awareness. This is done through
recall, recognition, and relearning.
Question 1
Another name for short-term memory:
sensory memory
episodic memory
working memory
implicit memory
Check Answer
C
Question 2
The storage capacity of long-term memory is ________.
one or two bits of information
seven bits, plus or minus two
limited
essentially limitless
Check Answer
D
Question 3
The three functions of memory are ________.
automatic processing, effortful processing, and storage
encoding, processing, and storage
automatic processing, effortful processing, and retrieval
Compare and contrast implicit and explicit memory.
Both are types of long-term memory. Explicit memories are memories
we consciously try to remember and recall. Explicit memory is also
called declarative memory and is subdivided into episodic memory
(life events) and semantic memory (words, ideas, and concepts).
Implicit memories are memories that are not part of our
consciousness; they are memories formed from behaviors. Implicit
memory is also called non-declarative memory and includes
procedural memory as well as things learned through classical
conditioning.
According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, name and describe the three stages of memory.
According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, memory is processed in
three stages. The first is sensory memory; this is very brief: 1–2
seconds. Anything not attended to is ignored. The stimuli we pay
attention to then move into our short-term memory. Short-term
memory can hold approximately 7 bits of information for around 20
seconds. Information here is either forgotten, or it is encoded
into long-term memory through the process of rehearsal. Long-term
memory is the permanent storage of information—its capacity is
basically unlimited.
Compare and contrast the two ways in which we encode information.
Information is encoded through automatic or effortful processing.
Automatic processing refers to all information that enters
long-term memory without conscious effort. This includes things
such as time, space, and frequency—for example, your ability to
remember what you ate for breakfast today or the fact that you
remember that you ran into your best friend in the supermarket
twice this week. Effortful processing refers to encoding
information through conscious attention and effort. Material that
you study for a test requires effortful processing.
(also, working memory) holds about seven bits of information
before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has
been retrieved and is being used ^
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
* Explain the brain functions involved in memory
* Recognize the roles of the hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebellum
Are memories stored in just one part of the brain, or are they stored in
many different parts of the brain? Karl Lashley began exploring this
problem, about 100 years ago, by making lesions in the brains of animals
such as rats and monkeys. He was searching for evidence of the
engram{: data-type=“term”}: the group of neurons that serve as the
“physical representation of memory” (Josselyn, 2010). First, Lashley
(1950) trained rats to find their way through a maze. Then, he used the
tools available at the time—in this case a soldering iron—to create
lesions in the rats’ brains, specifically in the cerebral cortex. He did
this because he was trying to erase the engram, or the original memory
trace that the rats had of the maze.
Lashley did not find evidence of the engram, and the rats were still
able to find their way through the maze, regardless of the size or
location of the lesion. Based on his creation of lesions and the
animals’ reaction, he formulated the equipotentiality hypothesis{:
data-type=“term”}: if part of one area of the brain involved in memory
is damaged, another part of the same area can take over that memory
function (Lashley, 1950). Although Lashley’s early work did not confirm
the existence of the engram, modern psychologists are making progress
locating it. Eric Kandel, for example, spent decades working on the
synapse, the basic structure of the brain, and its role in controlling
the flow of information through neural circuits needed to store memories
(Mayford, Siegelbaum, & Kandel, 2012).
Many scientists believe that the entire brain is involved with memory.
However, since Lashley’s research, other scientists have been able to
look more closely at the brain and memory. They have argued that memory
is located in specific parts of the brain, and specific neurons can be
recognized for their involvement in forming memories. The main parts of
the brain involved with memory are the amygdala, the hippocampus, the
cerebellum, and the prefrontal cortex
([link]).
First, let’s look at the role of the amygdala
in memory formation. The main job of the amygdala is to
regulate emotions, such as fear and aggression
([link]). The amygdala plays a part in how
memories are stored because storage is influenced by stress hormones.
For example, one researcher experimented with rats and the fear response
(Josselyn, 2010). Using Pavlovian conditioning, a neutral tone was
paired with a foot shock to the rats. This produced a fear memory in the
rats. After being conditioned, each time they heard the tone, they would
freeze (a defense response in rats), indicating a memory for the
impending shock. Then the researchers induced cell death in neurons in
the lateral amygdala, which is the specific area of the brain
responsible for fear memories. They found the fear memory faded (became
extinct). Because of its role in processing emotional information, the
amygdala is also involved in memory consolidation: the process of
transferring new learning into long-term memory. The amygdala seems to
facilitate encoding memories at a deeper level when the event is
emotionally arousing.
Clinical-correlate
Patients with PTSD often report dissociative amnesia for the traumatic
experiences. Instead, they have a stronger memory for the emotional aspects
of the traumatic experiences, which they experience repeatedly as flashbacks—experiencing
and feeling as if the events are occuring again. The emotional experiences are
strongly encoded in memory, but the actual memory lacks.
It is hypothesized that extreme activation of
amygdala during traumatic experiences overshadows the conscious prefrontal
cortex and formation of normal memories. Therapy for PTSD involves helping them
form a complete picture, so that they can be desensitized.
Another group of researchers also experimented with rats to learn how
the hippocampuspastehere functions in
memory processing ([link]). They created
lesions in the hippocampi of the rats, and found that the rats
demonstrated memory impairment on various tasks, such as object
recognition and maze running. They concluded that the hippocampus is
involved in memory, specifically normal recognition memory as well as
spatial memory (when the memory tasks are like recall tests) (Clark,
Zola, & Squire, 2000). Another job of the hippocampus is to project
information to cortical regions that give memories meaning and connect
them with other connected memories. It also plays a part in memory
consolidation: the process of transferring new learning into long-term
memory.
Injury to this area leaves us unable to process new declarative
memories. One famous patient, known for years only as H. M., had both
his left and right temporal lobes (hippocampi) removed in an attempt to
help control the seizures he had been suffering from for years (Corkin,
Amaral, González, Johnson, & Hyman, 1997). As a result, his declarative
memory was significantly affected, and he could not form new semantic
knowledge. He lost the ability to form new memories, yet he could still
remember information and events that had occurred prior to the surgery.
See also
For a closer look at how memory works, view this
video on quirks of memory, and
read more in this article about
patient HM.
Although the hippocampus seems to be more of a processing area for
explicit memories, you could still lose it and be able to create
implicit memories (procedural memory, motor learning, and classical
conditioning), thanks to your cerebellum{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} ([link]). For example, one
classical conditioning experiment is to accustom subjects to blink when
they are given a puff of air. When researchers damaged the cerebellums
of rabbits, they discovered that the rabbits were not able to learn the
conditioned eye-blink response (Steinmetz, 1999; Green & Woodruff-Pak,
2000).
Other researchers have used brain scans, including positron emission
tomography (PET) scans, to learn how people process and retain
information. From these studies, it seems the prefrontal cortex is
involved. In one study, participants had to complete two different
tasks: either looking for the letter a in words (considered a
perceptual task) or categorizing a noun as either living or non-living
(considered a semantic task) (Kapur et al., 1994). Participants were
then asked which words they had previously seen. Recall was much better
for the semantic task than for the perceptual task. According to PET
scans, there was much more activation in the left inferior prefrontal
cortex in the semantic task. In another study, encoding was associated
with left frontal activity, while retrieval of information was
associated with the right frontal region (Craik et al., 1999).
There also appear to be specific neurotransmitters involved with the
process of memory, such as epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin, glutamate,
and acetylcholine (Myhrer, 2003). There continues to be discussion and
debate among researchers as to which neurotransmitter{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} plays which specific role (Blockland,
1996). Although we don’t yet know which role each neurotransmitter plays
in memory, we do know that communication among neurons via
neurotransmitters is critical for developing new memories. Repeated
activity by neurons leads to increased neurotransmitters in the synapses
and more efficient and more synaptic connections. This is how memory
consolidation occurs.
It is also believed that strong emotions trigger the formation of strong
memories, and weaker emotional experiences form weaker memories; this is
called arousal theory{: data-type=“term”} (Christianson, 1992).
For example, strong emotional experiences can trigger the release of
neurotransmitters, as well as hormones, which strengthen memory;
therefore, our memory for an emotional event is usually better than our
memory for a non-emotional event. When humans and animals are stressed,
the brain secretes more of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which helps
them remember the stressful event (McGaugh, 2003). This is clearly
evidenced by what is known as the flashbulb memory phenomenon.
A flashbulb memory{: data-type=“term”} is an exceptionally clear
recollection of an important event ([link]).
Where were you when you first heard about the 9/11 terrorist attacks?
Most likely you can remember where you were and what you were doing. In
fact, a Pew Research Center (2011) survey found that for those Americans
who were age 8 or older at the time of the event, 97% can recall the
moment they learned of this event, even a decade after it happened.
Beginning with Karl Lashley, researchers and psychologists have been
searching for the engram, which is the physical trace of memory. Lashley
did not find the engram, but he did suggest that memories are
distributed throughout the entire brain rather than stored in one
specific area. Now we know that three brain areas do play significant
roles in the processing and storage of different types of memories:
cerebellum, hippocampus, and amygdala. The cerebellum’s job is to
process procedural memories; the hippocampus is where new memories are
encoded; the amygdala helps determine what memories to store, and it
plays a part in determining where the memories are stored based on
whether we have a strong or weak emotional response to the event. Strong
emotional experiences can trigger the release of neurotransmitters, as
well as hormones, which strengthen memory, so that memory for an
emotional event is usually stronger than memory for a non-emotional
event. This is shown by what is known as the flashbulb memory
phenomenon: our ability to remember significant life events. However,
our memory for life events (autobiographical memory) is not always
accurate.
Question
This physical trace of memory is known as the ________.
engram
Lashley effect
Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm
flashbulb memory effect {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
An exceptionally clear recollection of an important event is a
(an) ________.
What might happen to your memory system if you sustained damage to
your hippocampus?
Because your hippocampus seems to be more of a processing area for
your explicit memories, injury to this area could leave you unable
to process new declarative (explicit) memories; however, even with
this loss, you would be able to create implicit memories
(procedural memory, motor learning and classical conditioning).
exceptionally clear recollection of an important event
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Compare and contrast the two types of interference
You may pride yourself on your amazing ability to remember the
birthdates and ages of all of your friends and family members, or you
may be able recall vivid details of your 5th birthday party at Chuck E.
Cheese’s. However, all of us have at times felt frustrated, and even
embarrassed, when our memories have failed us. There are several reasons
why this happens.
Amnesia is the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result
of disease, physical trauma, or psychological
trauma. Psychologist Tulving (2002) and his colleagues at the University
of Toronto studied K. C. for years. K. C. suffered a traumatic head
injury in a motorcycle accident and then had severe amnesia. Tulving
writes,
the outstanding fact about K.C.’s mental make-up is his utter inability
to remember any events, circumstances, or situations from his own life.
His episodic amnesia covers his whole life, from birth to the present.
The only exception is the experiences that, at any time, he has had in
the last minute or two.
There are two common types of amnesia: anterograde amnesia and
retrograde amnesia ([link]). Anterograde
amnesia is commonly caused by brain trauma, such as a blow to the head.
With anterograde amnesia, people cannot remember
new information, although they can remember information and events that
happened prior to their injury. The hippocampus is usually affected
(McLeod, 2011). This suggests that damage to the brain has resulted in
the inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term
memory; that is, the inability to consolidate memories.
Many people with this form of amnesia are unable to form new episodic or
semantic memories, but are still able to form new procedural
memories. [1]
This was true of H. M., which was discussed
earlier. The brain damage caused by his surgery resulted in anterograde
amnesia. H. M. would read the same magazine over and over, having no
memory of ever reading it—it was always new to him. He also could not
remember people he had met after his surgery. If you were introduced to
H. M. and then you left the room for a few minutes, he would not know
you upon your return and would introduce himself to you again. However,
when presented the same puzzle several days in a row, although he did
not remember having seen the puzzle before, his speed at solving it
became faster each day
(because of relearning). [2][3]
A single-line flow diagram compares two types of amnesia.
In the center
is a box labeled “event” with arrows extending from both sides.
Extending to the left is an arrow pointing left to the word “past”; the
arrow is labeled “retrograde amnesia.” Extending to the right is an
arrow pointing right to the word “present”; the arrow is labeled
“anterograde amnesia.”
Retrograde amnesia is loss of memory for
events that occurred prior to the trauma. People with retrograde amnesia
cannot remember some or even all of their past. They have difficulty
remembering episodic memories. What if you woke up in the hospital one
day and there were people surrounding your bed claiming to be your
spouse, your children, and your parents? The trouble is you don’t
recognize any of them. You were in a car accident, suffered a head
injury, and now have retrograde amnesia. You don’t remember anything
about your life prior to waking up in the hospital. This may sound like
the stuff of Hollywood movies, and Hollywood has been fascinated with
the amnesia plot for nearly a century, going all the way back to the
film Garden of Lies from 1915 to more recent movies such as the Jason
Bourne spy thrillers. However, for real-life sufferers of retrograde
amnesia, like former NFL football player Scott Bolzan, the story is not
a Hollywood movie. Bolzan fell, hit his head, and deleted 46 years of
his life in an instant. He is now living with one of the most extreme
cases of retrograde amnesia on record.
See also
View the video story profiling
Scott Bolzan’s amnesia and his attempts to get his life back.
Even though some cases of retrograde amnesia occur due to organic causes, it
is more likely to occur in psychogenic (dissociative) amnesia—a type of amnesia that is
psychological in nature and often associated with trauma, for example in PTSD.
In such cases, the amnesia is often very profound, and may be very speific
for certain traumatic experiences. In people with amnesia due to organic causes,
retrograde amnesia is often less prominent or absent. Furthermore, there is a
pattern to the amnesia in such cases, described in Ribot’s law. Ribot’s law
of retrograde amnesia describes that in retrograde amnesia memories are often
lost in a temporal gradient; recent memories are more severely affected than remote
memories. This phenonmenon is also noted in pateints with dementia of alzheimer’s type.
Impairement of new learning (anterograde amnesia) is most prominent and more likely
is most cases of organic amnesia, and usually absent in psychogenic amnesia.
Furthermore, psychogenic amnesia may involve a loss of personal identity, which is
never seen in organic causes of amnesia.
Korsakoff psychosis is the most common cause of organic amnestic syndrome. It grossly
impairs new learning (anterograde amnesia),
Impairement of new learning may lead to disorientation in time, even though events are recalled
for a few minutes afte they occur, but are forgotton thereafter. Loss of autobiographical
information also occurs, but the severity of retrograde amnesia is variable and follows
follows a temporal gradient.
It presents with sudden onset profound anterograde amnesia lasting 15 minutes
to 24 hours. Disorientation is present just like in Korsakoff psychosis.
Myth: It is normal for elderly individuals to have poor memory.
Onyl about 15% adults aged 65 and older experience memory deficits due to mild or major
neurocognitive disorder. The remaining 85% do not show significant decline in memory and are
able to live independently.
The formulation of new memories is sometimes called construction,
and the process of bringing up old memories is called
reconstruction. Yet as we retrieve our
memories, we also tend to alter and modify them. A memory pulled from
long-term storage into short-term memory is flexible. New events can be
added and we can change what we think we remember about past events,
resulting in inaccuracies and distortions. People may not intend to
distort facts, but it can happen in the process of retrieving old
memories and combining them with new memories (Roediger and DeSoto, in
press).
When someone witnesses a crime, that person’s memory of the details of
the crime is very important in catching the suspect. Because memory is
so fragile, witnesses can be easily (and often accidentally) misled due
to the problem of suggestibility. Suggestibility describes the effects
of misinformation from external
sources that leads to the creation of false memories. In the fall of
2002, a sniper in the DC area shot people at a gas station, leaving Home
Depot, and walking down the street. These attacks went on in a variety
of places for over three weeks and resulted in the deaths of ten people.
During this time, as you can imagine, people were terrified to leave
their homes, go shopping, or even walk through their neighborhoods.
Police officers and the FBI worked frantically to solve the crimes, and
a tip hotline was set up. Law enforcement received over 140,000 tips,
which resulted in approximately 35,000 possible suspects (Newseum,
n.d.).
Most of the tips were dead ends, until a white van was spotted at the
site of one of the shootings. The police chief went on national
television with a picture of the white van. After the news conference,
several other eyewitnesses called to say that they too had seen a white
van fleeing from the scene of the shooting. At the time, there were more
than 70,000 white vans in the area. Police officers, as well as the
general public, focused almost exclusively on white vans because they
believed the eyewitnesses. Other tips were ignored. When the suspects
were finally caught, they were driving a blue sedan.
As illustrated by this example, we are vulnerable to the power of
suggestion, simply based on something we see on the news. Or we can
claim to remember something that in fact is only a suggestion someone
made. It is the suggestion that is the cause of the false memory.
Even though memory and the process of reconstruction can be fragile,
police officers, prosecutors, and the courts often rely on eyewitness
identification and testimony in the prosecution of criminals. However,
faulty eyewitness identification and testimony can lead to wrongful
convictions ([link]).
How does this happen?
Forensic Implications: Two Cases
Ronald Cotton Case
In 1984, Jennifer Thompson, then a 22-year-old
college student in North Carolina, was brutally raped at knifepoint. As
she was being raped, she tried to memorize every detail of her rapist’s
face and physical characteristics, vowing that if she survived, she
would help get him convicted. After the police were contacted, a
composite sketch was made of the suspect, and Jennifer was shown six
photos. She chose two, one of which was of Ronald Cotton. After looking
at the photos for 4–5 minutes, she said, “Yeah. This is the one,” and
then she added, “I think this is the guy.” When questioned about this by
the detective who asked, “You’re sure? Positive?” She said that it was
him. Then she asked the detective if she did OK, and he reinforced her
choice by telling her she did great. These kinds of unintended cues and
suggestions by police officers can lead witnesses to identify the wrong
suspect. The district attorney was concerned about her lack of certainty
the first time, so she viewed a lineup of seven men. She said she was
trying to decide between numbers 4 and 5, finally deciding that Cotton,
number 5, “Looks most like him.” He was 22 years old.
By the time the trial began, Jennifer Thompson had absolutely no doubt
that she was raped by Ronald Cotton. She testified at the court hearing,
and her testimony was compelling enough that it helped convict him. How
did she go from, “I think it’s the guy” and it “Looks most like him,” to
such certainty? Gary Wells and Deah Quinlivan (2009) assert it’s
suggestive police identification procedures, such as stacking lineups to
make the defendant stand out, telling the witness which person to
identify, and confirming witnesses choices by telling them “Good
choice,” or “You picked the guy.”
After Cotton was convicted of the rape, he was sent to prison for life
plus 50 years. After 4 years in prison, he was able to get a new trial.
Jennifer Thompson once again testified against him. This time Ronald
Cotton was given two life sentences. After serving 11 years in prison,
DNA evidence finally demonstrated that Ronald Cotton did not commit the
rape, was innocent, and had served over a decade in prison for a crime
he did not commit.
See also
To learn more about Ronald Cotton and the fallibility of memory,
watch these excellent Part 1 and
Part 2 videos by 60 Minutes.
Ronald Cotton’s story, unfortunately, is not unique. There are also
people who were convicted and placed on death row, who were later
exonerated. The Innocence Project is a non-profit group that works to
exonerate falsely convicted people, including those convicted by
eyewitness testimony. To learn more, you can visit
http://www.innocenceproject.org.
The Elizabeth Smart Case
Contrast the Cotton case with what happened in the Elizabeth
Smart case. When Elizabeth was
14 years old and fast asleep in her bed at home, she was abducted at
knifepoint. Her nine-year-old sister, Mary Katherine, was sleeping in
the same bed and watched, terrified, as her beloved older sister was
abducted. Mary Katherine was the sole eyewitness to this crime and
was very fearful. In the coming weeks, the Salt Lake City police and
the FBI proceeded with caution with Mary Katherine. They did not want
to implant any false memories or mislead her in any way. They did not
show her police line-ups or push her to do a composite sketch of the
abductor. They knew if they corrupted her memory, Elizabeth might
never be found. For several months, there was little or no progress
on the case. Then, about 4 months after the kidnapping, Mary
Katherine first recalled that she had heard the abductor’s voice
prior to that night (he had worked one time as a handyman at the
family’s home) and then she was able to name the person whose voice
it was. The family contacted the press and others recognized
him—after a total of nine months, the suspect was caught and
Elizabeth Smart was returned to her family.
Cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has conducted extensive research
on memory. She has studied false memories as well as recovered memories
of childhood sexual abuse. Loftus also developed the misinformation
effect paradigm, which holds that after exposure
to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event.
According to Loftus, an eyewitness’s memory of an event is very flexible
due to the misinformation effect. To test this theory, Loftus and John
Palmer (1974) asked 45 U.S. college students to estimate the speed of
cars using different forms of questions :(Fig. 38) .
The participants were shown films
of car accidents and were asked to play the role of the eyewitness and
describe what happened. They were asked, “About how fast were the cars
going when they (smashed, collided, bumped, hit, contacted) each other?”
The participants estimated the speed of the cars based on the verb used.
Participants who heard the word “smashed” estimated that the cars were
traveling at a much higher speed than participants who heard the word
“contacted.” The implied information about speed, based on the verb they
heard, had an effect on the participants’ memory of the accident. In a
follow-up one week later, participants were asked if they saw any broken
glass (none was shown in the accident pictures). Participants who had
been in the “smashed” group were more than twice as likely to indicate
that they did remember seeing glass. Loftus and Palmer demonstrated that
a leading question encouraged them to not only remember the cars were
going faster, but to also falsely remember that they saw broken glass.
Photograph A shows two cars that have crashed into each other. Part B
is a bar graph titled “perceived speed based on questioner’s verb
(source: Loftus and Palmer, 1974).”
The x-axis is labeled “questioner’s
verb, and the y-axis is labeled “perceived speed (mph).” Five bars share
data: “smashed” was perceived at about 41 mph, “collided” at about 39
mph, “bumped” at about 37 mph, “hit” at about 34 mph, and “contacted” at
about 32 mph.
Controversies over Repressed and Recovered Memories
Other researchers have described how whole events, not just words, can
be falsely recalled, even when they did not happen. The idea that
memories of traumatic events could be repressed has been a theme in the
field of psychology, beginning with Sigmund Freud, and the controversy
surrounding the idea continues today.
Recall of false autobiographical memories is called false memory
syndrome. This syndrome has received a lot of
publicity, particularly as it relates to memories of events that do not
have independent witnesses—often the only witnesses to the abuse are the
perpetrator and the victim (e.g., sexual abuse).
On one side of the debate are those who have recovered memories of
childhood abuse years after it occurred. These researchers argue that
some children’s experiences have been so traumatizing and distressing
that they must lock those memories away in order to lead some semblance
of a normal life. They believe that repressed memories can be locked
away for decades and later recalled intact through hypnosis and guided
imagery techniques (Devilly, 2007).
Research suggests that having no memory of childhood sexual abuse is
quite common in adults. For instance, one large-scale study conducted by
John Briere and Jon Conte (1993) revealed that 59% of 450 men and women
who were receiving treatment for sexual abuse that had occurred before
age 18 had forgotten their experiences. Ross Cheit (2007) suggested that
repressing these memories created psychological distress in adulthood.
The Recovered Memory Project was created so that victims of childhood
sexual abuse can recall these memories and allow the healing process to
begin (Cheit, 2007; Devilly, 2007).
On the other side, Loftus has challenged the idea that individuals can
repress memories of traumatic events from childhood, including sexual
abuse, and then recover those memories years later through therapeutic
techniques such as hypnosis, guided visualization, and age regression.
Loftus is not saying that childhood sexual abuse doesn’t happen, but she
does question whether or not those memories are accurate, and she is
skeptical of the questioning process used to access these memories,
given that even the slightest suggestion from the therapist can lead to
misinformation effects. For example, researchers Stephen Ceci and Maggie
Brucks (1993, 1995) asked three-year-old children to use an anatomically
correct doll to show where their pediatricians had touched them during
an exam. Fifty-five percent of the children pointed to the genital/anal
area on the dolls, even when they had not received any form of genital
exam.
Caution
Suggestions from therapist can lead to misinformation effects.
Ever since Loftus published her first studies on the suggestibility of
eyewitness testimony in the 1970s, social scientists, police officers,
therapists, and legal practitioners have been aware of the flaws in
interview practices. Consequently, steps have been taken to decrease
suggestibility of witnesses. One way is to modify how witnesses are
questioned. When interviewers use neutral and less leading language,
children more accurately recall what happened and who was involved
(Goodman, 2006; Pipe, 1996; Pipe, Lamb, Orbach, & Esplin, 2004). Another
change is in how police lineups are conducted. It’s recommended that a
blind photo lineup be used. This way the person administering the lineup
doesn’t know which photo belongs to the suspect, minimizing the
possibility of giving leading cues. Additionally, judges in some states
now inform jurors about the possibility of misidentification. Judges can
also suppress eyewitness testimony if they deem it unreliable.
“I’ve a grand memory for forgetting,” quipped Robert Louis Stevenson.
Forgetting refers to loss of information from
long-term memory. We all forget things, like a loved one’s birthday,
someone’s name, or where we put our car keys. As you’ve come to see,
memory is fragile, and forgetting can be frustrating and even
embarrassing. But why do we forget?
The prevailing theories of forgetting include, decay theory, interference
theory and retrival failure.
We will
look at several perspectives on forgetting.
Sometimes memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins,
which is encoding failure. We can’t remember something if we never
stored it in our memory in the first place. This would be like trying to
find a book on your e-reader that you never actually purchased and
downloaded. Often, in order to remember something, we must pay attention
to the details and actively work to process the information (effortful
encoding). Lots of times we don’t do this. For instance, think of how
many times in your life you’ve seen a penny. Can you accurately recall
what the front of a U.S. penny looks like? When researchers Raymond
Nickerson and Marilyn Adams (1979) asked this question, they found that
most Americans don’t know which one it is. The reason is most likely
encoding failure. Most of us never encode the details of the penny. We
only encode enough information to be able to distinguish it from other
coins. If we don’t encode the information, then it’s not in our
long-term memory, so we will not be able to remember it.
{: #Figure_08_03_Coins}
Clinical-correlate: Poor Memory in Depression
Patients with depression and anxiety often report memory problems
such as ‘frequently forgetting to recall where they placed something.’ Such
day-to-day forgetting occurs because of encoding failure. Patients with
depression and anxiety are often preoccupied with thoughts because of which
they may fail to pay attention while performing chores. Indeed, forgetfullness
in day-to-day activities in ADHD may also occur, at least in part,
because of their poor attention (encoding failure)
Psychologist Daniel Schacter (2001), a well-known memory researcher,
offers seven ways our memories fail us. He calls them the seven sins of
memory and categorizes them into three groups: forgetting, distortion,
and intrusion [4]
See ([Table]) for the entire list.
Accessibility
of information
is temporarily
blocked
Tip of the
tongue
Misattribution
Distortion
Source of
memory is
confused
Recalling a
dream memory as
a waking memory
Suggestibility
Distortion
False memories
Result from
leading
questions
Bias
Distortion
Memories
distorted by
current belief
system
Align memories
to current
beliefs
Persistence
Intrusion
Inability to
forget
undesirable
memories
Traumatic
events
Let’s look at the first sin of the forgetting errors: transience,
which means that memories can fade over time. Here’s
an example of how this happens. Nathan’s English teacher has assigned
his students to read the novel To Kill a Mockingbird. Nathan comes
home from school and tells his mom he has to read this book for class.
“Oh, I loved that book!” she says. Nathan asks her what the book is
about, and after some hesitation she says, “Well … I know I read the
book in high school, and I remember that one of the main characters is
named Scout, and her father is an attorney, but I honestly don’t
remember anything else.” Nathan wonders if his mother actually read the
book, and his mother is surprised she can’t recall the plot. What is
going on here is storage decay: unused information tends to fade with
the passage of time.
In 1885, German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus
analyzed the process of memorization. First, he memorized
lists of nonsense syllables. Then he measured how much he learned
(retained) when he attempted to relearn each list. He tested himself
over different periods of time from 20 minutes later to 30 days later.
The result is his famous forgetting curve
([link]). Due to storage decay, an
average person will lose 50% of the memorized information after 20
minutes and 70% of the information after 24 hours (Ebbinghaus,
1885/1964). Your memory for new information decays quickly and then
eventually levels out.
A line graph has an x-axis labeled “elapsed time since learning” with a
scale listing these intervals: 0, 20, and 60 minutes; 9, 24, and 48
hours; and 6 and 31 days. The y-axis is labeled “retention (%)” with a
scale of zero to 100. The line reflects these approximate data points: 0
minutes is 100%, 20 minutes is 55%, 60 minutes is 40%, 9 hours is 37%,
24 hours is 30%, 48 hours is 25%, 6 days is 20%, and 31 days is
10%.
Are you constantly losing your cell phone? Have you ever driven back
home to make sure you turned off the stove? Have you ever walked into a
room for something, but forgotten what it was? You probably answered yes
to at least one, if not all, of these examples—but don’t worry, you are
not alone. We are all prone to committing the memory error known as
absentmindedness. These lapses in memory are
caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else.
Cynthia, a psychologist, recalls a time when she recently committed the
memory error of absentmindedness.
When I was completing court-ordered psychological evaluations, each time
I went to the court, I was issued a temporary identification card with a
magnetic strip which would open otherwise locked doors. As you can
imagine, in a courtroom, this identification is valuable and important
and no one wanted it to be lost or be picked up by a criminal. At the
end of the day, I would hand in my temporary identification. One day,
when I was almost done with an evaluation, my daughter’s day care called
and said she was sick and needed to be picked up. It was flu season, I
didn’t know how sick she was, and I was concerned. I finished up the
evaluation in the next ten minutes, packed up my tools, and rushed to
drive to my daughter’s day care. After I picked up my daughter, I could
not remember if I had handed back my identification or if I had left it
sitting out on a table. I immediately called the court to check. It
turned out that I had handed back my identification. Why could I not
remember that? (personal communication, September 5, 2013)
Hint
When have you experienced absentmindedness?
“I just went and saw this movie called Oblivion, and it had that
famous actor in it. Oh, what’s his name? He’s been in all of those
movies, like The Shawshank Redemption and The Dark Knight trilogy. I
think he’s even won an Oscar. Oh gosh, I can picture his face in my
mind, and hear his distinctive voice, but I just can’t think of his
name! This is going to bug me until I can remember it!” This particular
error can be so frustrating because you have the information right on
the tip of your tongue. Have you ever experienced this? If so, you’ve
committed the error known as blocking: you can’t access stored
information ([link]).
Now let’s take a look at the three errors of distortion: misattribution,
suggestibility, and bias. Misattribution
happens when you confuse the source of your information. Let’s say
Alejandro was dating Lucia and they saw the first Hobbit movie together.
Then they broke up and Alejandro saw the second Hobbit movie with
someone else. Later that year, Alejandro and Lucia get back together.
One day, they are discussing how the Hobbit books and movies are
different and Alejandro says to Lucia, “I loved watching the second
movie with you and seeing you jump out of your seat during that super
scary part.” When Lucia responded with a puzzled and then angry look,
Alejandro realized he’d committed the error of misattribution.
What if someone is a victim of rape shortly after watching a television
program? Is it possible that the victim could actually blame the rape on
the person she saw on television because of misattribution? This is
exactly what happened to Donald Thomson.
Forensic Implications: Donald Thomson Case
Australian eyewitness expert Donald Thomson appeared on a live TV
discussion about the unreliability of eyewitness memory. He was later
arrested, placed in a lineup and identified by a victim as the man who
had raped her. The police charged Thomson although the rape had occurred
at the time he was on TV. They dismissed his alibi that he was in plain
view of a TV audience and in the company of the other discussants,
including an assistant commissioner of police… . Eventually, the
investigators discovered that the rapist had attacked the woman as she
was watching TV—the very program on which Thomson had appeared.
Authorities eventually cleared Thomson. The woman had confused the
rapist’s face with the face that she had seen on TV. (Baddeley, 2004,
p. 133)
The second distortion error is suggestibility. Suggestibility is similar
to misattribution, since it also involves false memories, but it’s
different. With misattribution you create the false memory entirely on
your own, which is what the victim did in the Donald Thomson case above.
With suggestibility, it comes from someone else, such as a therapist or
police interviewer asking leading questions of a witness during an
interview.
Memories can also be affected by bias, which
is the final distortion error. Schacter (2001) says that your feelings
and view of the world can actually distort your memory of past events.
There are several types of bias:
Stereotypical bias involves racial and gender biases. For example,
when Asian American and European American research participants were
presented with a list of names, they more frequently incorrectly
remembered typical African American names such as Jamal and Tyrone to
be associated with the occupation basketball player, and they more
frequently incorrectly remembered typical White names such as Greg
and Howard to be associated with the occupation of
politician. [5]
Egocentric bias involves enhancing our memories of the
past. [5]
Did you really score the winning goal in that big soccer
match, or did you just assist?
Hindsight bias happens when we think an outcome was inevitable after
the event. This is the “I knew it all along” phenomenon. The
reconstructive nature of memory contributes to hindsight
bias. [6]
We remember untrue events that seem to confirm that we knew
the outcome all along.
Have you ever had a song play over and over in your head? How about a
memory of a traumatic event, something you really do not want to think
about? When you keep remembering something, to the point where you can’t
“get it out of your head” and it interferes with your ability to
concentrate on other things, it is called persistence.
It’s Schacter’s seventh and last memory error. It’s
actually a failure of our memory system because we involuntarily recall
unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones
([link]). For instance, you witness a
horrific car accident on the way to work one morning, and you can’t
concentrate on work because you keep remembering the scene.
Sometimes information is stored in our memory, but for some reason it is
inaccessible. This is known as interference, and there are two types:
proactive interference and retroactive interference
See ([Interference]).
Have you ever gotten a new phone
number or moved to a new address, but right after you tell people the
old (and wrong) phone number or address? When the new year starts, do
you find you accidentally write the previous year? These are examples of
proactive interference when old information
hinders the recall of newly learned information. Retroactive
interference happens when information learned
more recently hinders the recall of older information. For example, this
week you are studying about Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory. Next week you
study the humanistic perspective of Maslow and Rogers. Thereafter, you
have trouble remembering Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development
because you can only remember Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
A box with the text “learn
combination to high school locker, 17–04–32” is followed by an arrow
pointing right toward a box labeled “memory of old locker combination
interferes with recall of new gym locker combination, ??–??–??”; the
arrow connecting the two boxes contains the text “proactive interference
(old information hinders recall of new information.” Beneath that is a
second part of the diagram. A box with the text “knowledge of new email
address interferes with recall of old email address, nvayala@???” is
followed by an arrow pointing left toward the “early event” box and away
from another box labeled “learn sibling’s new college email address,
npatel@siblingcollege.edu”; the arrow connecting the two boxes contains
the text “retroactive interference (new information hinders recall of
old information.”
All of us at times have felt dismayed, frustrated, and even embarrassed
when our memories have failed us. Our memory is flexible and prone to
many errors, which is why eyewitness testimony has been found to be
largely unreliable. There are several reasons why forgetting occurs. In
cases of brain trauma or disease, forgetting may be due to amnesia.
Another reason we forget is due to encoding failure. We can’t remember
something if we never stored it in our memory in the first place.
Schacter presents seven memory errors that also contribute to
forgetting. Sometimes, information is actually stored in our memory, but
we cannot access it due to interference. Proactive interference happens
when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information.
Retroactive interference happens when information learned more recently
hinders the recall of older information.
Question
________ is when our recollections of the past are done in a
self-enhancing manner.
stereotypical bias
egocentric bias
hindsight bias
enhancement bias {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is also known as ________.
persistence
misattribution
transience
blocking {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The formulation of new memories is sometimes called ________, and
the process of bringing up old memories is called ________.
Compare and contrast the two types of interference.
Explanation
There are two types of interference: retroactive and proactive.
Both are types of forgetting caused by a failure to retrieve
information. With retroactive interference, new information
hinders the ability to recall older information. With proactive
interference, it’s the opposite: old information hinders the
recall of newly learned information.
Question
:class: hint
Compare and contrast the two types of amnesia.
There are two types of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde. Both
involve the loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of
disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma. With
anterograde amnesia, you cannot remember new information; however,
you can remember information and events that happened prior to
your injury. Retrograde amnesia is the exact opposite: you
experience loss of memory for events that occurred before the
trauma.
Which of the seven memory errors presented by Schacter have you
committed? Provide an example of each one.
Question
Jurors place a lot of weight on eyewitness testimony. Imagine you
are an attorney representing a defendant who is accused of robbing
a convenience store. Several eyewitnesses have been called to
testify against your client. What would you tell the jurors about
the reliability of eyewitness testimony?
memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of
time
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Most of us suffer from memory failures of one kind or another, and most
of us would like to improve our memories so that we don’t forget where
we put the car keys or, more importantly, the material we need to know
for an exam. In this section, we’ll look at some ways to help you
remember better, and at some strategies for more effective studying.
What are some everyday ways we can improve our memory, including recall?
To help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term
memory, you can use memory-enhancing strategies.
One strategy is rehearsal, or the conscious repetition of information to be
remembered (Craik & Watkins, 1973). Think about how you learned your
multiplication tables as a child. You may recall that 6 x 6 = 36, 6 x 7
= 42, and 6 x 8 = 48. Memorizing these facts is rehearsal.
Another strategy is chunking you organize
information into manageable bits or chunks (Bodie, Powers, &
Fitch-Hauser, 2006). Chunking is useful when trying to remember
information like dates and phone numbers. Instead of trying to remember
5205550467, you remember the number as 520-555-0467. So, if you met an
interesting person at a party and you wanted to remember his phone
number, you would naturally chunk it, and you could repeat the number
over and over, which is the rehearsal strategy.
See also
Try this fun activity that
employs a memory-enhancing strategy.
You could also enhance memory by using elaborative rehearsal{:
data-type=“term”}: a technique in which you think about the meaning of
the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your
memory (Tigner, 1999). For example, in this case, you could remember
that 520 is an area code for Arizona and the person you met is from
Arizona. This would help you better remember the 520 prefix. If the
information is retained, it goes into long-term memory.
Adequate Sleep is also important for two reasons. First, studies of sleep deprivation
have shown the declinining cognitive functions among subjects, especially a reduced
attention span. Then, other studies have shown that performance of
subjects on various memory tests improve significantly when it follows a learning
activity. Declarative memories are reprocessed during slow wave sleep which is the
likely mechanism of longterm potentiation. Most people need 7-8 hours of sleep at night.
Mnemonic devices{: data-type=“term”} are memory aids that help us
organize information for encoding ([link]).
They are especially useful when we want to recall larger bits of
information such as steps, stages, phases, and parts of a system
(Bellezza, 1981). Brian needs to learn the order of the planets in the
solar system, but he’s having a hard time remembering the correct order.
His friend Kelly suggests a mnemonic device that can help him remember.
Kelly tells Brian to simply remember the name Mr. VEM J. SUN, and he can
easily recall the correct order of the planets: Mercury,
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune. You might use a mnemonic device to help
you remember someone’s name, a mathematical formula, or the order of
mathematical operations.
{: #Figure_08_04_Knuckles}
If you have ever watched the television show Modern Family, you might
have seen Phil Dunphy explain how he remembers names:
The other day I met this guy named Carl. Now, I might forget that name,
but he was wearing a Grateful Dead t-shirt. What’s a band like the
Grateful Dead? Phish. Where do fish live? The ocean. What else lives in
the ocean? Coral. Hello, Co-arl. (Wrubel & Spiller, 2010)
It seems the more vivid or unusual the mnemonic, the easier it is to
remember. The key to using any mnemonic successfully is to find a
strategy that works for you.
See also
Watch this fascinating TED Talks
lecture titled “Feats of Memory
Anyone Can Do.” The lecture is given by Joshua Foer, a science writer
who “accidentally” won the U. S. Memory Championships. He explains a
mnemonic device called the memory palace.
Some other strategies that are used to improve memory include expressive
writing and saying words aloud. Expressive writing helps boost your
short-term memory, particularly if you write about a traumatic
experience in your life. Masao Yogo and Shuji Fujihara (2008) had
participants write for 20-minute intervals several times per month. The
participants were instructed to write about a traumatic experience,
their best possible future selves, or a trivial topic. The researchers
found that this simple writing task increased short-term memory capacity
after five weeks, but only for the participants who wrote about
traumatic experiences. Psychologists can’t explain why this writing task
works, but it does.
What if you want to remember items you need to pick up at the store?
Simply say them out loud to yourself. A series of studies (MacLeod,
Gopie, Hourihan, Neary, & Ozubko, 2010) found that saying a word out
loud improves your memory for the word because it increases the word’s
distinctiveness. Feel silly, saying random grocery items aloud? This
technique works equally well if you just mouth the words. Using these
techniques increased participants’ memory for the words by more than
10%. These techniques can also be used to help you study.
Based on the information presented in this chapter, here are some
strategies and suggestions to help you hone your study techniques
([link]). The key with any of these strategies
is to figure out what works best for you.
{: #Figure_08_04_Study}
Use elaborative rehearsal: In a famous article, Craik and
Lockhart (1972) discussed their belief that information we process
more deeply goes into long-term memory. Their theory is called
levels of processing{: data-type=“term”}. If we want to
remember a piece of information, we should think about it more deeply
and link it to other information and memories to make it more
meaningful. For example, if we are trying to remember that the
hippocampus is involved with memory processing, we might envision a
hippopotamus with excellent memory and then we could better remember
the hippocampus.
Apply the self-reference effect: As you go through the process of
elaborative rehearsal, it would be even more beneficial to make the
material you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you. In
other words, make use of the self-reference effect. Write notes in
your own words. Write definitions from the text, and then rewrite
them in your own words. Relate the material to something you have
already learned for another class, or think how you can apply the
concepts to your own life. When you do this, you are building a web
of retrieval cues that will help you access the material when you
want to remember it.
Don’t forget the forgetting curve: As you know, the information
you learn drops off rapidly with time. Even if you think you know the
material, study it again right before test time to increase the
likelihood the information will remain in your memory. Overlearning
can help prevent storage decay.
Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse: Review the material over time, in
spaced and organized study sessions. Organize and study your notes,
and take practice quizzes/exams. Link the new information to other
information you already know well.
Be aware of interference: To reduce the likelihood of
interference, study during a quiet time without interruptions or
distractions (like television or music). Read from a single source.
Keep moving: Of course you already know that exercise is good for
your body, but did you also know it’s also good for your mind?
Research suggests that regular aerobic exercise (anything that gets
your heart rate elevated) is beneficial for memory (van Praag, 2008).
Aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis: the growth of new brain cells
in the hippocampus, an area of the brain known to play a role in
memory and learning.
Get enough sleep: While you are sleeping, your brain is still at
work. During sleep the brain organizes and consolidates information
to be stored in long-term memory (Abel & Bäuml, 2013).
Make use of mnemonic devices: As you learned earlier in this
chapter, mnemonic devices often help us to remember and recall
information. There are different types of mnemonic devices, such as
the acronym. An acronym is a word formed by the first letter of each
of the words you want to remember. For example, even if you live near
one, you might have difficulty recalling the names of all five Great
Lakes. What if I told you to think of the word Homes? HOMES is an
acronym that represents Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior:
the five Great Lakes. Another type of mnemonic device is an acrostic:
you make a phrase of all the first letters of the words. For example,
if you are taking a math test and you are having difficulty
remembering the order of operations, recalling the following
sentence will help you: “Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally,” because
the order of mathematical operations is Parentheses, Exponents,
Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction. There also are
jingles, which are rhyming tunes that contain key words related to
the concept, such as i before e, except after c.
There are many ways to combat the inevitable failures of our memory
system. Some common strategies that can be used in everyday situations
include mnemonic devices, rehearsal, self-referencing, and adequate
sleep. These same strategies also can help you to study more
effectively.
Question
When you are learning how to play the piano, the statement “Every
good boy does fine” can help you remember the notes E, G, B, D,
and F for the lines of the treble clef. This is an example of a
(an) ________.
jingle
acronym
acrostic
acoustic {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
According to a study by Yogo and Fujihara (2008), if you want to
improve your short-term memory, you should spend time writing
about ________.
your best possible future self
a traumatic life experience
a trivial topic
your grocery list {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The self-referencing effect refers to ________.
making the material you are trying to memorize personally
meaningful to you
making a phrase of all the first letters of the words you are
trying to memorize
making a word formed by the first letter of each of the words
you are trying to memorize
saying words you want to remember out loud to yourself {:
type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Memory aids that help organize information for encoding are
________.
What is the self-reference effect, and how can it help you study
more effectively?
The self-reference effect is the tendency an individual to have
better memory for information that relates to oneself than
information that is not personally relevant. You can use the
self-reference effect to relate the material to something you have
already learned for another class, or think how you can apply the
concepts to your life. When you do this, you are building a web of
retrieval cues that will help you access the material when you
want to remember it.
You and your roommate spent all of last night studying for your
psychology test. You think you know the material; however, you
suggest that you study again the next morning an hour prior to the
test. Your roommate asks you to explain why you think this is a
good idea. What do you tell her?
You remind her about Ebbinghaus’s forgetting curve: the
information you learn drops off rapidly with time. Even if you
think you know the material, you should study it again right
before test time to increase the likelihood the information will
remain in your memory. Overlearning can help prevent storage
decay.
memory aids that help organize information for encoding
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For answers and explanations, google justpsychiatry question bank.
For how long does the short-term memory store hold the information?
1 to 3 seconds
7 to 12 seconds
About 10 seconds
Less than 1 second
Up to 30 seconds
Baddeley’s Model of Storage is also called:
Long term memory
Sensory memory
Short term memory
Visuospatial sketchpad
Working memory
Regarding the levels of processing of information during memory
encoding, deep processing means:
What does it mean and how does it look like?
What does the term look and sound like?
What does the term look like?
What does the term sound like?
What is the meaning of the term?
During assessment, a patient suspected to have dementia was
reminiscing about old times. He could not recount the details of a
trip he had with his family to London. His wife reminded him of
some of the events after which he could recall several other events
from the trip. What helped enhance recall?
Encoding
Maintenance rehearsal
Priming
Reinstatement effect
Retrieval cues
An elderly man is being tested for cognitive deficits. While the
patient is trying to recall the days of the week in reverse order,
what type of memory would be used:
Episodic
Procedural
Semantic
Sensory
Short-term
Is long term memory—as described in the Atkinson and Shiffrin model
of memory, a permanent storage?
Evidence favors it may be
Evidence favors it may not be
Evidence is inconclusive so far
No, information is lost over time
Yes, by definition
An alcoholic, who when sober cannot recall what occurred when
drunk, only to remember again next time when he/she drink too much.
This is best described as
Blocking
Context dependent memories
Encoding failure
Failure of retrieval
State dependent memories
A teacher helps students to organize information on the blackboard,
starting with a schema idea with branches of ideas sprouting from
those descriptors. The teacher told students that information
organized in the brain similarly is better understood and recalled.
This is the idea of:
Clustering
Hierarchies
PDP model
Schemata
Semantic networks
The testing effect refers to:
Earlier testing leads to misremembering
Enhanced effects of rehearsal after self-testing
Enhanced long-term memory after rehearsal
Organization of information into concepts after testing
Repeated self-testing enhances retention
This type of memory can only hold about 5-9 items at a time before
it is displaced. Choose the best match:
Episodic
Long term
Recent
Sensory
Short term
Keeping the reliability of eyewitness testimonies from memory point
of view, should a judge use eyewitness testimony when determining
the guilt of somebody?
No, even our clearest memories are not near a factual as we
believe.
No, its poor reliability is unacceptable for court cases
Yes, our memories are mostly reliable
Yes, our memories are vivid and clear enough to pick out
criminals.
Yes, sometimes it might be useful.
A middle-aged alcohol-dependent woman presented to you with amnesia
following Wernicke encephalopathy, most likely due to Korsakoff
psychosis. Which of the following would be unaffected on clinical
testing?
Orientation
Recall at 5 minutes
Recall of long-term information
Recall of recent events
Registration
You are trying to help a person think about his home phone. You
give him phone as the first clue word, which however, makes him
think of work phone and cellphone too. This failure is best
described by:
False consolidation processes
False storage of information
Misinformation effect
Misinformation of cues
Recognition failure of recallable words
A 25-year-old woman is brought to you with memory deficit. The
family reports that she witnessed her son died a week back, in an
RTA, after which she lost her memories of the last three months.
She can remember the events that happened later but not the other
events that happened prior to it or during it, strictly for three
months before the incident. Her mother says, she wandered
purposelessly for two days and was completely disheveled on return.
Reportedly, this woman has used alcohol and benzodiazepines in the
past and such incidents happened in the past as well, however, she
recalled the events later. On examination, registration is 3/3,
short-term memory 3/3 and she appears perplexed, sometimes trying
to attract the attention of everyone towards her. The rest of the
assessment is unremarkable except for the presence of a scar on the
forehead. What is the diagnosis?
Acute Stress disorder
Dissociative Amnesia
Dissociative fugue
Organic Amnestic syndrome
Post-traumatic amnesia
When tested on your memory of a list of words you would remember
best the words at the beginning and end. This is known as the:
Acronym usage approach
Chunking sequelae
Mnemonics device
Production effect
Serial position effect
The most prominent memory deficit due to electroconvulsive therapy
is:
Long-term episodic
Prospective memory
New learning
Working memory
Semantic memory
This would suggest that you recall information better if you are in
the same psychological or pharmacological state that you were when
you learned it.
Context-dependent
Display rule
Level of processing
Serial position
State dependent
The hippocampus helps us remember things by:
Allowing us perform rehearsal
Helping us with physical coordination
Helping with recoding of information
Remembering implicit memories
Transferring information to long-term memory
A type of declarative memory that is not embedded in a context is
called:
Episodic memory
Implicit memory
Information memory
Procedural memory
Semantic memory
A 40-year-old man whom you are assessing for memory knows that
President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, in 1963. What
type of memory was tested?
Declarative
Episodic anterograde
Episodic retrograde
Non-declarative
Semantic
A 40-year-old man presented to you with complaints of poor memory.
During testing, you spoke to him five digits: 91482 and asked him
to arrange them mentally in ascending order. What memory is being
tested?
Collective memory
Episodic memory
Recent memory
Semantic memory
Working memory
In patients with Korsakov syndrome, what memory process is impaired
Automatic encoding
Decay
Failure of registration
Interference
Retrieval failure
The most widely used memory scale is
Corsi block test
7-item address
Multifactorial memory scale
Digit span test
Weschler memory scale
During clinical assessment of memory, a patient says that the
capital of China is Beijing, but in the past had been called
Peking. As the clinician enquired if he could recall when he
learned the information, he thought for a moment and then said, “I
don’t really know.” The information was likely retrieved from:
Emotional memory store
Episodic memory store
Implicit memory store
Procedural memory store
Semantic memory store
A 50-year-old man is being assessed for memory deficits. He is
given a list of items that his has to recall after thirty minutes.
The patient forgot the information that was on the middle of the
list. This is an example of?
Encoding failure
Middle forgetfulness
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Serial position effect
A patient says he is phobic of hospitals. Every time he visits the
hospital, he is reminded of the time he spent at the hospital and
underwent through painful procedure while he was sick. In this
scenario, the hospital represents:
A Deese-Roediger-McDermott factor
A memory trace
A retrieval cue
A context effect
Cue overload
Anand hears his smart older sister say, “I finished the test,” from
which he inferred that she passed the test. This is best described
by:
Cognitive interference
Engaging in improper encoding
Making a pragmatic inference
Succumbing to cues of information
Using selective abstraction
When Mike is learns something new, he then makes the information
make more sense to him by using a personal example. This process is
known as:
Distinctiveness
Encoding
Recoding
Rehearsal
Retrieval
What memory impairment is noted with alcohol intoxication
Automatic encoding
Decay
Failure of registration
Interference
Retrieval failure
A 70-year-old man is being assessed for dementia. During clinical
testing, he is asked to name all the names of vegetables that he
can recall. This type of memory performance is referred to as:
FAS test
Mnemonic performance
Production test
Recall test
Reconstruction test
A 60-year-old woman who is being assessed for memory deficits stats
she can vividly recount the moment she heard about the events of
September eleven. She recalled when she turned on the news—the
images of the twin towers, the fire and the smoke she saw is
permanently engraved in her brain. This scenario describes:
Eidetic imagery
False memories
Flashbulb memory
Flashbacks
Traumatic memories
A 40-year-old man is being evaluated for memory complaints. When a
junior clinician showed him three pictures of penny with slight
differences, he could not recognize the correct one. However, a
senior objected to the validity of the test saying most people
would not be able to recognize the correct coin. What is the best
explanation?
Amnesia
Decay theory
Encoding failure
Interference
Retrieval failure
This effect would suggest that we remember thing that come in the
beginning of the list better than those that come in the middle.
Priming
Multiple encoding
Primacy
Recency
Serial position
This theory of memory suggests that the deeper we understand it,
the better we will remember it:
Atkinson-Shiffrin
Fitz’s theory
Levels of Processing
Long-term potentiation
Nash’s theory
In a class, the professor asks the students to write answer to an
essay question about classical conditioning. What type of memory
retrieval test would this be?
Cognition level 1
False positive
Recall
Recognition
Tip of the tongue
Memories that are not consciously aware, but are implied through
one’s behaviour are referred to as:
Aware memories
Explicit memories
Implicit memories
Unconscious memories
Waking memories
What length of time are memories stored in long-term memory?
Around 50 years
Close to 30 years
Indefinitely
Until replaced
Variable periods
A person cramming for a test for hours not remembering anything
besides the first few and last things they studied is an example
of:
Decay theory
Flynn effect
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Serial position effect
When we just cannot get the word out that we want to use:
Cocktail party phenomenon
Semantic aphasia
Thought block
Source memory
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
A 22-year-old man who is college student presented to you in the
outpatient department saying he has a hard time recalling important
information on the day of the exam. He says due to anxiety and
excessively lengthy syllabus, he must quickly memorize everything.
He said he even uses caffeine to enhance his alertness on the day
of the examination even though he does not use caffeine in general.
What would best explain his memory problem?
Interference
Pseudo forgetting
Retrieval failure
Serial position
State dependent
Which of the following is one of the three processes of memory?
Attention
Recall
Recognition
Relearning
Retrieval
After brain injury in a road traffic accident, a man can no longer
recall the past two weeks. Which type of amnesia is he suffering
from?
Anterograde amnesia
Proactive interference
Prospective amnesia
Retroactive interference
Retrograde amnesia
When tested on your memory of a list of words you would remember
best the words at the beginning and end. This is known as the:
Acronym usage approach
Chunking sequelae
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Serial position effect
What brain area mediates visuospatial short-term memory?
Broca’s area
Cerebellum
Left occipital lobe
Left OFC
Right dlPFC
A 30-year-old woman is brought to you with memory deficits and
rigid behaviour. On examination, she appears lean and weak,
disheveled, is disoriented to time, has a flat affect, registration
is 3/3, short term memory is 0/3 and long-term memory appears
intact. She does not have any difficulty naming objects. On
physical examination, her weight is 42 kg and height 152 cm. The
woman says, there is nothing wrong with her, while her father says
she is speaking too many lies these days. The rest of the clinical
evaluation is insignificant except for chronic diarrhea and recent
episodes of vomiting. Most likely diagnosis:
Dementia of Alzheimer’s type
Dissociative amnesia
Organic amnestic syndrome
Transient global amnesia
Wernicke encephalopathy
A 30-year-old woman is brought to you with memory deficits and
rigid behaviour. On examination, she appears lean and weak,
disheveled, is disoriented to time, has a flat affect, registration
is 3/3, short term memory is 0/3 and long-term memory appears
intact. She does not have any difficulty naming objects. On
physical examination, her weight is 42 kg and height 152 cm. The
woman says, there is nothing wrong with her, while her father says
she is speaking too many lies these days. The rest of the clinical
evaluation is insignificant except for chronic diarrhea and recent
episodes of vomiting. Most likely diagnosis:
Dementia of Alzheimer’s type
Dissociative amnesia
Organic amnestic syndrome
Transient global amnesia
Wernicke encephalopathy
Information is shifted to short-term memory from sensory memory by:
Buffering
Concentration
Effortful processing
Encoding
Selective attention
This type of memory is enabling you to comprehend this question and
figure out the best answer:
Echoic memory
Long-term memory
Semantic memory
Sensory memory
Working memory
A middle-aged man is depressed, when you asked him to think about
the good times from the past, he only recounted the negative events
and said his past is filled with gloomy memories. This is an
example of?
Context-dependent memories
Mood-congruent memory
Recall bias
Reinstatement effect
State-dependent memory
During assessment, a patient suspected to have dementia was
reminiscing about old times. He could not recount the details of a
trip he had with his family to London. What part of the three-stage
memory is he having problem with?
Consolidation
Consolidation or retrieval
Encoding
Retrieval
Selective attention
What is the first stage of memory?
Consolidation
Registration
Selective attention
Sensory memory
Short term memory
This type of memory only lasts about 1-2 seconds; we consider it
our filtering memory.
Episodic
Iconic
Semantic
Sensory
Short term
Which of the following is one of the systems of memory stores?
Encoding
Immediate
Recent
Sensory
Storage
Autobiographical memory forms the core of an individual’s:
Constitution
Coping style
Intelligence
Personal identity
Personality
What happens to a memory, which makes it to short-term memory, if
it is unrehearsed for 30 seconds?
Consolidation
Decay
Encoded
Lost
Retrieved
Ability to carry out planned actions on the expected times is
called:
Anterograde memory
Concentration
Episodic memory
Prospective memory
Temporal memory
Most likely cause of long-term forgetting is:
Decay
Prospective interference
Pseudo forgetting
Retrieval failure
Retrospective interference
Thinking about strawberry makes one think of strawberry-jam,
shortcake, and milkshake. This occurs because of:
Attenuation
Cueing
Habituation
Priming
Situational modeling
A 30-year-old woman with post-traumatic stress disorder cannot
remember the details of the torture she experienced. This is an
example of:
Encoding failure
Interference
Memory decay
Motivated forgetting
Pseudo forgetting
A 40-year-old man presented you in the outpatient department with
amnesia of events that have happened in the last three months.
Three months ago, he had a road traffic accident. Typically, such
patients have experienced damage to the:
Cerebellum
Cortex
Frontal lobes
Hippocampus
Thalamus
The cerebellum is an important structure in the creation and
storage of:
Declarative memories
Emotional memories
Explicit memories
Implicit memories
Prospective memories
A 30-year-old woman presented to you in the outpatient department
with recent-onset memory problems. She has difficulty learning new
information, but is alert and oriented to time, place, and person.
This began after road-side accident. Where is the lesion most
likely?
Dorsal striatum
Entorhinal cortex
Hippocampus
Medial temporal lobe
Thalamus
The Atkinson & Shiffrin “modal model” of memory posited that human
memory has:
Iconic and echoic components
Semantic processing
Three stages
Three stores
Visuospatial sketchpad
Mood-congruent memory is best described as:
Alertness to cues of danger when fearful
Enhanced memory recall when elated
Poor memory and concentration when depression
The tendency to better recall events consistent with our mood
The tendency to remember sad events when depressed
The modification of memories in terms of one’s general attitude is
called
Blocking
Confabulation
False memory syndrome
Retrospective falsification
Transience
If new experiences disrupt recall of old experiences, this is
referred to as:
Proactive interference
Recall bias
Retrieval failure
Retroactive interference
Simply forgetting
Which of the following would demonstrate declarative memories?
Being able to drive a bike
Emotional memories associated with a place
Good handwriting
Knowledge of how to drive a car
Priming
When trying to remember a list of words, a person may choose a word
to which they “hang” their memories on. This technique to enhance
memory is called:
Cue technique
Memory palace technique
Mnemonic word technique
Peg word technique
Word aid technique
Which of the following best describes a flashbulb memory?
Better recall of a typical event than an unusual event
No memory of times when they were high on alcohol
Poor memory of some momentous and emotional event
Vivid memory of some momentous and emotional event
Worse memory for an unusual event than typical events
During the assessment, a clinician was busy writing notes while
pretending to be listening to the patient as well. When the
clinician stops writing, he asks a question from the patient that
he had just answered. The most likely factor why the clinician was
not being able to retrieve the information is:
Avoiding eye contact
Context dependent memory
Divided attention
Encoding failure
Lack of rehearsal
During frontal lobe assessment, a patient performs the conflicting
instructions tests where he taps once when the examiner taps twice
and taps twice when the examiner taps one. In the next test, the
Go-no-Go test, the order is reversed. Some patients, however, fail
to learn the new patter. This failure to learn the new pattern is
best explained by:
Cue overload
Memory traces/engrams
Priming
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
“Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally” (PEMDAS) is a way math teachers
help their students remember the order of operations, that is,
Parentheses à Exponents à Multiplication and Division à Addition
and Subtraction). This is an example of:
Cues of retrieval
Deese-Roediger-McDermott effect
Memory palaces
Mnemonic devices
Peg word technique
In a study, researchers showed the same video to two groups of
participants. They told the first group that it was a video about
two people engaged in an unfriendly disagreement and the other
group that it was a video of two friends enjoying a lively chat.
The first group were more likely, later, to falsely report the
people in the video were shouting, frowning, and angry. This best
explained by:
Cue overload
Hindsight bias
Misattribution effect
Misinformation effect
Recall bias
A 60-year-old man presented to you in the outpatient department
with memory complaints. During the assessment, you give him three
items, pen, paper, and pencil, and he was able to correctly recall
all the three items five minutes later. A senior pointed out that
the items were easily recalled because they were related. What are
this phenomenon?
Intergroup bias
Lexicon
Potentiation
Priming
Situation modelling
Regarding the levels of processing of information during memory
encoding, intermediate processing means:
How does the item smell like?
What does it look and sound like?
What does the term look like?
What does the term sound like?
What is the meaning of the term?
This type of memory only lasts about 1-2 seconds. We consider it
our filtering memory:
Attention
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Sensory memory
Short term memory
What brain area mediates phonological short-term memory?
Cerebellum
Left occipital lobe
Left prefrontal cortex
Right parietal area
Wernicke area
When he was 27 years old, H.M. had a surgery to remove a structure
in the brain. The surgery reduced his epileptic seizures but also
resulted in an inability to form new memories. What structure was
this?
Amygdala
Basal ganglia
Entorhinal cortex
Hippocampus
Visual cortex
During a trial in a court, an attorney asks the witness in court, ”
How fast were the cars going when they SMASHED into each other?” On
which the opposing attorney immediately responds with an
“Objection.” The statement is:
Confusing
Influencing
Leading
Misleading
Unethical
Which of the following types of memory deals with a person’s
ability to remember things like riding a bicycle?
Emotional memories
Episodic memories
Implicit memories
Procedural memories
Semantic memories
Situation specific amnesia may arise in patients with:
Adjustment disorder
Alcohol use disorder
Depressive disorder
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Post-traumatic stress disorder
The hippocampus helps us remember things by:
Helping to retrieve information from long term stores
Helping us comprehend information
Helping with deeper processing of information
Helping with the reinstatement effect
Transferring information from short-term to long-term memory
The umbrella term for the memory model:
Atkinson Shiffrin model
Baddeley model
Central executive model
George miller model
Information processing model
The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in
the cocktail party effect
Concentration
Divided attention
Focused attention
Selective attention
Sustained attention
When it comes to relationships, we expect to share thoughts,
feelings, and ideas in a mutual exchange called:
Altruism
Balance
Intimacy
Reciprocity
Social exchange
This type of memory allows to ignore all unimportant stimuli in the
environment:
Episodic memory
Long-term memory
Semantic memory
Sensory memory
Working memory
The act of retrieval can improve the information just retrieved and
increases the likelihood it will be retrieved again; a phenomenon
called the:
Long-term potentiation
Recoding phenomenon
Rehearsal effect
Retrieval practice effect
Testing effect
A 30-year-old woman is brought to you with memory deficits and
rigid behaviour. On examination, she appears lean and weak,
disheveled, is disoriented to time, has a flat affect, registration
is 3/3, short term memory is 0/3 and long-term memory appears
intact. She does not have any difficulty naming objects. On
physical examination, her weight is 42 kg and height 152 cm. The
woman says, there is nothing wrong with her, while her father says
she is speaking too many lies these days. The rest of the clinical
evaluation is insignificant except for chronic diarrhea and recent
episodes of vomiting. What finding will you look for, on MRI?
Empty Sella sign
Face of giant panda sign
Hippocampal atrophy
Increased signal in midline structures
Periventricular signal change
What type of long-term memory cannot be consciously inspected?
Autobiographical memories
Declarative memories
Episodic memories
Implicit memories
Semantic memories
Which of the following is an example of effortful processing?
Apply content to self
Chunking
Mnemonics
Rehearsal
Visual encoding
The cerebellum is an important structure in the creation and
storage of:
Declarative memories
Emotional memories
Explicit memories
Procedural memories
Prospective memories
The act of retrieval can have both positive and negative outcomes.
One negative outcome is that it harms related information causing a
person to forget such related information, a phenomenon called:
Negative rehearsal
Recoding failure
Retrieval practice effect
Retrieval-induced forgetting
Retroactive interference
A woman admitted to the ICU is not able to recall memories. Three
weeks earlier, a group of robbers had severely beaten her and left
her for dead after robbing her at her home because she was showing
resistance. She spent a few weeks in a coma. Two days after you
assess her, she is able to recognize you and could recall her first
assessment by you. Which type of amnesia does she have?
Acute amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
Infantile amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
Retrospective amnesia
When you remember something that you already learned to be able to
manipulate it in working memory, the process is known as:
Encoding
Recoding
Rehearsal
Retrieval
Storage
A 55-year-old man with mild presenile dementia has difficulty
naming objects and people, recalling important events from past,
but can continue to drive without difficulty. What type of memory
is preserved in this patient?
Declarative
Episodic
Explicit
Implicit
Semantic
Which one among the following refers to the act of bringing past
experiences as they happened into conscious awareness?
Recall
Recoding
Recognition
Reintegration
Relearning
A 30-year-old woman presented to you in the outpatient department
with recent-onset memory problems. She has difficulty learning new
information, but is alert and oriented to time, place, and person.
This began after road-side accident. Where is the lesion most
likely?
Dorsal striatum
Entorhinal cortex
Hippocampus
Medial temporal lobe
Thalamus
A 30-year-old woman presented to you in the outpatient department
with recent-onset memory problems. She has difficulty learning new
information, but is alert and oriented to time, place, and person.
This began after road-side accident. Where is the lesion most
likely?
Dorsal striatum
Entorhinal cortex
Hippocampus
Medial temporal lobe
Thalamus
Fill-in-the blank test questions are to multiple-choice questions
as:
Encoding is to recall
Encoding is to storage
Recall is to recognition
Recognition is to recall
Storage is to be encoding
A 50-year-old woman who is being assessed for dementia was trying
to remember a conversation she had had with one of her friends,
when you asked her to recall about her last birthday party, she was
trying to access her:
Emotional memory
Episodic memory
Iconic memory
Implicit memory
Semantic memory
You falsely recognize a definition term on an exam, remembering the
word but not the concept. On the exam you write the wrong answer.
This is an example of:
Forgetting
Misremembering
Pseudo forgetting
Recall error
Recognition error
An unusual event, typically in the context of similar events, will
be recalled and recognized better than uniform events. This is the
principle of:
Cue exposure
Distinctiveness
Misinformation
Recoding
Reinstatement
A test of short-term visual memory is:
Bender gestalt
BVRT
Hayling test
Weschler memory scale
NART
It is more difficult to learn the ICD-11 for those who have studied
and practiced on the lCD-10 for years than for those who are new to
psychiatry and learning the ICD-11 for the first time, without
having ever studied the ICD-10. This difference is best explained
by:
Encoding failure
Proactive interference
Pseudo forgetting
Retrieval failure
Retroactive interference
Our experiences that directly impact our brain though neural
processes are referred to as:
Cue overload
Engrams
Mnemonic devices
Parallel distribution network
Retrieval cues
The capacity of working memory (short-term memory) is reduced in
children with ADHD because of:
Cognitive interference
Distractibility
Impulsivity
Intrusions
Poor involvement
A 30-year-old woman presented to you in the outpatient department
with symptoms of depression and reports she is preoccupied with sad
thoughts most of the time. The patient also reports forgetfulness
in day-today activities and often forgets where she kept a
particular item. Her memory difficulties are most likely due to:
Amnestic syndrome
Automatic processing
Effortful processing
Priming
State-dependent memory
After changing the pin code of his smartphone, a boy forgets the
pin code of his iPad. He is experiencing:
Encoding failure
Proactive interference
Repression
Retroactive interference
Storage failure
When information is unable to be processed into memory:
Decay
Encoding failure
False memory
Memory trace
Pseudo forgetting
A 70-year-old man with suspected dementia is given a list of ten
words to remember. When he is asked to repeat the words, he can
only remember the first four words. What is this concept referred
to as?
Light effect
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Retrieval effect
Serial position effect
Which part of the brain is responsible for storing semantic
memories?
Entorhinal cortex
Hippocampus
Hypothalamus
Occipital lobe
Thalamus
A 65-year-old man presented to you with memory deficits for the
last two years. On the assessment of his memory, he was not able to
recall the memories of his most recent birthday, though he could
recall memories from a birthday five years ago. Which type of
memory impairment does he have?
Anterograde learning
Episodic memories
Global deficits
Long-term retrograde
Semantic memory
Forgetting happens when one’s memory fades over time, especially
short-term memories and recent memories. This phenomenon is best
explained by:
Decay theory
Encoding failure
Motivated forgetting
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
A 50-year-old man presented to you with complaints of poor memory.
When you asked him about his memories of last birthday party, he
could recount them well. This was a test of his:
Episodic memory
Procedural memory
Semantic memory
Sensory memory
Short term memory
George Miller’s model of short-term memory is about
Capacity of Storage
Central executive memory
Levels of encoding
Phonological loop memory
Visuo-spatial memory
Auditory memory in the sensory store is known as
Echoic
Iconic
Phoneme
Phonological
Verbal
A 21-year-old student presented to you in the outpatient department
saying she has a hard time recalling important information on the
day of the exam. She says initially she memorizes everything very
well but as the time nears, she has forgotten most of the important
facts that she learnt early during her preparation, but she can
never find time to revise her course. What would best explain her
problem?
Decay theory
Encoding failure
Interference
Pseudoforgetting
Retrieval failure
People can only attend to one physical channel of information at a
time. ‘Which theory of attention states this?
Attenuator model of selective attention
Broadbent’s filter theory of attention
Cocktail party phenomenon
Dichotic listening experiments
Shiffrin and Schneider’s divided attention theory
What people report as memories is based on what actually happened
plus additional factors such as other knowledge, experiences, and
expectations:
Cognitive hypothesis
Constructive memory approach
Narrative rehearsal hypothesis
Pragmatic inference hypothesis
Total time hypothesis
A 70-year-old man with dementia is being assessed for memory
deficits. During the assessment, he recounts a day when he was
driving for work and saw people gathered around a location where a
bomb had blasted and had killed forty-five. The man could recall
much about his drive for work on that day but not about his usual
drives. Which memory concept best explains this phenomenon?
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) effect
Distinctiveness
Parallel-distribution-processing
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
A 20-year-old man presented to you in the outpatient department
with symptoms of depression. When you asked him to try and recall
some pleasant events from the past instead of brooding over his
problems, he said his past is packed with depressive memories. This
is best explained by:
Mood-congruent memories
Pseudo-forgetting
Retrieval failure
Selective abstraction
State-dependent memories
The storage model we use which falls under the Information
Processing Model is
Atkinson Shiffrin model
Baddeley’s model
Miller’s model
Parallel distributed processing
Tulving’s model
When someone links latest information to past information, they
are:
Enriching Encoding with Elaboration
Enriching Encoding with Imagery
Enriching Encoding with Self-Reference
Excluding retrograde interference
Involving retrograde interference
A 50-year-old man presented to you in the outpatient department
with complaints of poor memory. During cognitive testing, you asked
him to memorize a list of letters that included v,q,y, and j
without ensuring registration. He later recalled these letters as
e,u,L, and k, suggesting that the original letters had been
encoded:
Acoustic
Automatic
Elaborate
Semantic
Visual
What are the two types of processing of sensory information?
Deep and shallow
Effortful and automatic
Iconic and echoic
Short-term and sensory
Visual and auditory
According to the multi-store model of memory proposed by Atkinson
and Shiffrin, the three types of memory stores are:
Encoding, storage and retrieval
Sensory, short-term, long-term
Short term, recent and long-term
Storage, organization and long-term
Working, short-term and long-term
Which part of the brain is responsible for storing semantic
memories?
Entorhinal cortex
Hippocampus
Hypothalamus
Occipital lobe
Thalamus
Regarding memory, the theory of the spacing effect states that:
Cramming is the best way for long-term memories
Encoding is more effective when practice is distributed over
time
Memory consolidation takes place during rest
Memory is enhanced with repeated rehearsal and overlearning
We learn better by chunking and using mnemonics
Exploring into one’s memory to figure out what they did three days
ago:
Cocktail phenomenon
Reconsolidation
Reality monitoring
Reinstating the context
Source monitoring
Sensory memory has these two types:
Deep and shallow
Iconic and echoic
Short Term and working
Visual and auditory
Working and long-term
A 70-year-old man with dementia is brough to your office by his
son, who reports that his father would often awaken early in the
morning and say he is going to farm fields as he would do years
ago, even though they are now living away from the farm in a
distant new city. The patient’s behaviour is best explained by:
Encoding failure
Proactive interference
Pseudo forgetting
Retroactive interference
Storage failure
A student states during assessment that his exam is pending 10 days
later. He can learn everything in 16 hours on his best estimate.
The student says he will be studying 16 hours the day before exam
to make sure he best recalls everything for the exam. What advise
will you give?
Study 2 hour per day for last six days
Study 3 hour daily for 6 days or more
Study 8 hours daily last two days
Study for 16 hours the day before exam
Study one hour per day instead
Famous for Leading Questions and False Memories Research:
Atkinson
Ebbinghaus
Elizabeth Loftus
George Bartlett
George Miller
What causes anterograde amnesia?
Automatic encoding
Failure of consolidation
Poor concentration
Retrieval failure
Retroactive interference
A 70-year-old man who is suspected of having dementia of
Alzheimer’s types is tested for recent, long and short-term
memories. His short-term memory was 1/3 but he was able to recount
where he was and what exactly he was doing during the huge
earthquake of October 2005. This is best described by:
Confabulation phenomena
Flashbulb memories
Flashbacks
Repression of memories
Ribot’s law of amnesia
A 30-year-old woman with post-traumatic stress disorder cannot
remember the details of the torture she experienced. According to
Freud, her failure to remember these painful memories is an example
of:
Flashbulb memories
Repressed memories
Retrieval failure
State-dependent memory
Suppressed memories
A young student presents to you with complaint of poor memory. On
assessment, it was reveled that he only sleeps 4 hour a night. His
memory is poor because memory consolidation occurs during:
Awake state
REM sleep
Slow wave sleep
Stage 1 sleep
Stage 2 sleep
Tip of the tongue state is a well investigated example of
Absentmindedness
Blocking
Encoding failure
Pseudo forgetting
Transience
A 30-year-old woman presents to you in the emergency department by
an ambulance after police officers were informed by her
next-door-neighbor, who suspected rape and robbery by a couple of
trespassers. The woman is completely alert and well-oriented to
time, place, and person but she cannot recollect anything of the
occurrence. Which of the following is the most probable cause of
this deficit?
Depersonalization disorder
Dissociative amnesia
Dissociative Fugue state
Traumatic brain injury
Volitional memory loss
A 21-year-old student presented to you in the outpatient department
for a follow up visit. She initially presented to you with memory
deficits but now says her memory has improved. She would never
revise the contents before taking exams but now rehearses the most
important topics repeatedly. What part of the brain is responsible
for improved performance?
Cerebellum
Hippocampus
Medulla
Midbrain
Temporal lobe
A young, 20-year-old college student presented to you in the
outpatient department saying he has a tough time recalling
essential information on the day of the exam. He says he can easily
recall the stories but often forgets dates and numbers. What memory
deficits does he show?
Episodic
Semantic
Sensory
Short term
Working
To help students better understand, a teacher should use least
words and more visual elaboration on a slideshow. This is best
explained by:
Atkinson and Shiffrin model
Baddeley’s model of working memory
Geroge Miller’s magical number
Information processing theory
Peterson and Peterson’s hypothesis
This is the process of getting information into memory:
Buffering
Encoding
Perception
Potentiation
Retrieval
When John heard about fishing while in conversation with friends,
he told them with excitement about the strange fish that he caught
over the summer when he was on vacation in the North. Which type of
long-term memory is John using?
Emotional memory
Episodic memory
Iconic memory
Procedural memory
Semantic memory
An elderly man with dementia described the memories of an event
from that occurred around 40 years ago, after seeing pictures with
friends from an event. This is an example of what retrieval
concept?
Memory re-construction
Recall
Recognition
Reinstatement
Relearning
A middle-aged man suffered from a brain injury in a road traffic
accident two months ago. On assessment, it was found that he could
remember events that happened before the accident but had
difficulty remembering events that happened recently. Which type of
amnesia does he have?
Acute amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
Prospective amnesia
Psychogenic amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
War of the Ghosts and the Misinformation Effect
Baddeley
Bartlett
Ebbinghaus
George Miller
Loftus
The idea that we remember life events better because we encounter
the information over and over in what we read, see on TV, and talk
about with other people is called the
Cognitive hypothesis of memory
Constructive memory approach
Narrative rehearsal hypothesis
Pragmatic inference hypothesis
Total time hypothesis
A young, 20-year-old college student presented to you in the
outpatient department saying he has a hard time recalling important
information on the day of the exam. He says due to anxiety and
excessively lengthy syllabus, he must quickly memorize things using
“rote memory technique.” What theory best explains his poor memory?
Atkinson-Shiffrin
Fitz’s theory
Levels of processing
Nash’s theory
Ribot’s law
Attending to a particular stimulus while ignoring others:
Concentration
Divided attention
Focused attention
Selective attention
Sustained attention
Which one of the following is test of selective attention?
3-word learning test
Digit span test
Flanker task
Rey-Osterrieth test
Wechsler memory scale
After attention, the three steps to encoding are:
Echoic, iconic, visual
Elaboration, Imagery and Self-Reference
Encoding, Storage and Retrieval
Sensory, Short Time and Long Term
Shallow, Intermediate and Deep
The first step to encoding is:
Concentration
Elaboration
Paying attention
Sensory memory
Shallow encoding
The three key processes for memory are:
Attention, concentration, rehearsal
Elaboration, imagery and self-referent questions
Encoding, storage and retrieval
Sensory, short-term and long-term memory
Shallow, intermediate and deep
An example of a flashbulb memory:
A memory under heavy alcohol use
A traumatic event intrudes
Memories of 9/11
Memories of college graduation
Visual imagery as if ecstasy again
A group of researchers gave participants a word list to be recalled
later. The list included the words table, restaurant, food, spoon,
plate, meal, and server. Later, when asked to recall the words,
many participants accidentally included the word dinner, even
though it was not on the list. This phenomenon is known as:
Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) effect
Primacy effect
Proactive interference
Retroactive interference
Serial position effect
At which stage does memory failure typically occur?
Any stage of memory
Encoding or retrieval
Encoding or storage
Retrieval stage
Storage or retrieval
A 70-year-old man is admitted to your ward for the management of
dementia. While you were assessing his long-term memories, you
asked him about his teachers in school. He wanted to say a name but
could not, so he mentally recited the names of other teachers at
the time. His efforts to refresh his memory by activating related
associations is an example of:
State dependent memories
Source monitoring
Priming
Reinstatement
Context cue
The parts of the brain important for 1) getting explicit memories
to your long-term memory, and 2) storing implicit memories
respectively are:
Amygdala, cerebellum
Cerebellum, hippocampus
Hippocampus, cerebellum
Hippocampus, lobes
Hippocampus, thalamus
Which of the following types of memory deals with a person’s
recollection of specific events or episodes from their lives?
Declarative
Emotional
Episodic
Non-declarative
Semantic
We are more likely to remember something when the conditions
present at the time we encoded it are also present at retrieval:
Context dependent learning
Cues of recall
Encoding specificity principle
Primacy effect
Reinstatement effect
A middle-aged man develops amnesia following traumatic brain injury
in a road traffic accident three months back involving injury to
the hippocampus in medial temporal lobe. What type of memory would
be spared in this patient?
Episodic memory
New learning
Procedural memory
Prospective memories
Semantic memory
The commonest cause of long-term forgetting is
Blocking
Encoding failure
Failure of retrieval
Lack of long-term potentiation
State dependent memories
Regarding human memory, how many bits of information does Miller
say an average person can chunk at best?
Five
Four
Nine
Seven
Twelve
A young, 20-year-old college student presented to you in the
outpatient department saying he has a hard time recalling important
information on the day of the exam. He says due to anxiety and
excessively lengthy syllabus, he must quickly memorize everything.
Among several things, he reported forgetting items from the middle
of the list. What effect best explains this?
Decay
Interference
Primacy
Pseudo forgetting
Shallow processing
What memory is most affected by ageing?
Long-term
Procedural
Recent memories (few days)
Short-term (5 minutes)
Working memory
Weighting information into memory depending upon its importance:
Clustering and hierarchies
Context dependent learning
PDP model
Schema
Semantic network
Visual memory in the sensory store is known as
Echoic
Eidetic
Iconic
Illusionary
Visuospatial
Regarding the levels of processing of information during memory
encoding, shallow processing means:
What does it mean and how does it look like?
What does the term look and sound like?
What does the term look like?
What does the term mean?
What does the term sound like?
A 60-year-old man is being assessed for dementia. Digit span test
is applied to assess his working memory. His working memory would
be unimpaired if the result is:
10 ± 2 digits
4 ± 3 digits
5 ± 2 digits
7 ± 1 digits
7 ± 2 digits
A 24-year-old medical student was rushed by ambulance to the
emergency department after an accident on his motorcycle. On
examination, he had shown evidence of head injury. The attendant
stated that he lost consciousness for a very short time. After a
week in the intensive care unit, the patient’s condition changed.
You talked to him, but he does not remember what happened and why
he is in hospital. The nurse on duty told that he takes her as his
girlfriend and talks very intimately. Choose the best term for the
nurse’s statement:
Amnesia
Confabulation
Delusional misidentification
Prosopagnosia
Reduplicative paramnesia
Trying to better recall something correctly with the help of
questions like: where did I hear that? Where did I read that? Is an
example of:
Reality monitoring
Reinstating the Context
Source monitoring
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
Using cues to aid retrieval
To enhance quick encoding and recall of information, some people
use elaborate scenes with discrete places, a technique known as:
Memory palace technique
Mnemonic device technique
Peg word technique
Retroactive cues
The specificity principle
While recalling an event, a person is thinking to decide whether
the event really happened, or he just dreamt of it. This is called:
Reality monitoring
Reinstating the Context
Source monitoring
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
Total time phenomenon
Organizing information for storage and retrieval by classification
is called:
Clustering and hierarchies
Context dependent learning
PDP model
Schemas
Semantic networks
To be effective, a retrieval cue must be unique according to the
principle of:
Cue overload
Distinctiveness
DRM effect
Reinstatement effect
Source monitoring
A after administering the digit span test, the patient is
immediately asked to count a three-digit number backwards. This
procedure is called:
Brown Paterson Task
Cognitive inhibition task
Concentration task
Conflicting instructions
Digit reversal test
In a patient with alcoholic blackouts, the memory deficit seen is
best described as:
Anterograde amnesia
Dissociative amnesia
Organic amnestic syndrome
Retrograde amnesia
Transient global amnesia
A 45-year-old man presented with memory problems along with social
and occupational impairment. He had difficulty with learning new
information and making appropriate plans. He retained the ability
to perform daily activities but during the interview, he was
observed to give a vivid and detailed but wholly fictitious account
of recent activities, which the patient believes to be true. On
mental status examination older memories being better preserved,
emotional blunting and inertia were observed. Lack of insight into
his condition All these symptoms precipitated after a suicide
attempt with vehicle exhaustion. Digit span test is typically
normal. He was noted to respond immediately to firmly set limits
and rewards, but deficits in memory prevented long-term
incorporation of these boundaries. New learning is grossly
defective. And hence concluded amnestic disorder. Which area
typically produce “purest” amnesia.
Medial temporal lobe
Non-dominant parietal lobe
Occipital lobe
Ventrolateral prefrontal cortex
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
A memory that you can describe aloud in words is known as
Declarative memory
Implicit memory
Procedural memory
Prospective memory
Semantic memory
The cause of anterograde amnesia is:
Inability to form new memories
Loss of prospective memory
Failure of encoding
Failure to recall memories in future
Failure to recall recent memories
Baddeley calls reciting information for memory as:
Buffering
Central executive system
Decoding
Phonological loop
Visuospatial sketchpad
What is the storage capacity of short-term memory?
3—5 items
7 +/- 2 items
Infinite
Three items
Twelve items
Short-term memory, as according to the three-stage memory model,
lasts approximately:
20-30 seconds
24 hours
30 minutes
5 minutes
Less than 1 second
A patient had an injury to the head eight weeks ago. He developed
post-traumatic amnesia after the incident and cannot recall events
from the past two months. He has:
Anterograde amnesia.
Episodic amnesia
Global amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
Semantic amnesia
Jake meets Jill at a coffee shop. They hit it off, and he asks for
her number, but sadly he does not have his phone or a pen. He tells
Jill to tell it to him and he will remember. As Jake hears the
phone number, he breaks up the numbers into small bits so he can
remember it later. What is this referred to as?
Chunking
Maintenance
Priming
Rehearsal
Retrieval
A set of mental operations that converts sensory information into a
form usable in the brain’s storage systems.
Encoding
Perception
Potentiation
Retrieval
Storage
According to Daniel Schacter, blocking occurs when:
Encoding failure occurs due to interference
Our beliefs influence our recollections
Our inattention to details produces encoding failures
Retrieval occurs because of decay
We confuse the source of information
Episodic memory is the memory system of the brains that holds:
Autobiographical knowledge
Conditioned reflexes
Generalized knowledge
Knowledge required for reading
Perceptual motor skills
A process that occurs after encoding that is believed to stabilize
memory traces:
Consolidation
Inferences
Potentiation
Recoding
Retrieval
A young student comes to class every day and sits in the same seat.
On the day of the test, she gets to class early to make sure she
sits in her seat. What would be the reason for this student
ensuring she is in the same seat for the test?
Context-dependent
Habituation
Priming
Retrieval cues
State-dependent
The neuropathological findings in patients with Korsakoff syndrome
include:
Gliosis
Infarction
Lewy bodies
Senile plaques
Synaptic dysfunction
Mr. Y is admitted to a medical ward with a diagnosis of delirium.
The cognitive deficit that is characteristic of delirium is
Clouding of consciousness
Disorientation for time
Long term memory impairment
Poor concentration
Short term memory impairment
George has a history of anxiety disorder. On visiting a church, he
developed a sense of familiarity because his stored memories were
brought into his consciousness. This phenomenon is called:
Déjà Vu
False memory syndrome
Jamais vu
Recognition
Retrospective falsification
The three-stage processing model of memory was proposed by:
Atkinson and Shiffrin
Baddeley
George sperling
Herman Ebbinghaus
Loftus and Palmer
Mood-congruent memories are best described as:
Context dependent memories
Cue-dependent memories
Emotional memories
Non-declarative memories
Retrieval enhanced memories
Gaps in memory are filled by a vivid and detailed but wholly
fictitious account of recent activities, which the patient believes
to be true in patients with amnestic syndrome. This is called:
Confabulation
Distortion
Hindsight bias
Misremembering
Pseudo forgetting
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Welcome to the story of your life. In this chapter we explore the
fascinating tale of how you have grown and developed into the person you
are today. We also look at some ideas about who you will grow into
tomorrow. Yours is a story of lifespan development
([link]), from the start of life to the end.
The process of human growth and development is more obvious in infancy
and childhood, yet your development is happening this moment and will
continue, minute by minute, for the rest of your life. Who you are today
and who you will be in the future depends on a blend of genetics,
environment, culture, relationships, and more, as you continue through
each phase of life. You have experienced firsthand much of what is
discussed in this chapter. Now consider what psychological science has
to say about your physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development,
from the womb to the tomb.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., & Bell, S. M. (1970). Attachment, exploration, and
separation: Illustrated by the behavior of one-year-olds in a strange
situation. Child Development, 41, 49–67.
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978).
Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange
situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2007). The importance of play in
promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child
bonds. Pediatrics, 199(1), 182–191.
Amsterdam, B. (1972). Mirror image reactions before age two.
Developmental Psychobiology, 5, 297–305.
Archer, J. (1992). Ethology and human development. New York, NY:
Harvester Wheatsheaf.
Arnett, J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the
late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5),
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Define and distinguish between the three domains of development: physical, cognitive and psychosocial
Discuss the normative approach to development
Understand the three major issues in development: continuity and discontinuity, one common course of development or many unique courses of development, and nature versus nurture
|My heart leaps up when I behold;
|A rainbow in the sky,
|So was it when my life began;
|So is it now I am a man;
|So be it when I shall grow old,
|Or let me die!
|The Child is father of the Man;
|I could wish my days to be
|Bound each to each by natural piety.
– Wordsworth, 1802
…
In this poem, William Wordsworth writes, “the child is father of the
man.” What does this seemingly incongruous statement mean, and what does
it have to do with lifespan development? Wordsworth might be suggesting
that the person he is as an adult depends largely on the experiences he
had in childhood. Consider the following questions: To what extent is
the adult you are today influenced by the child you once were? To what
extent is a child fundamentally different from the adult he grows up to
be?
These are the types of questions developmental psychologists try to
answer, by studying how humans change and grow from conception through
childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and death. They view development as a
lifelong process that can be studied scientifically across three
developmental domains—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development.
Physical development{: data-type=“term”} involves growth and
changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and
wellness. Cognitive development{: data-type=“term”} involves
learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and
creativity. Psychosocial development{: data-type=“term”} involves
emotions, personality, and social relationships. We refer to these
domains throughout the chapter.
psychology connect-the-concepts
Research Methods in Developmental Psychology
You’ve learned about a variety of research methods used by
psychologists. Developmental psychologists use many of these
approaches in order to better understand how individuals change
mentally and physically over time. These methods include naturalistic
observations, case studies, surveys, and experiments, among others.
Naturalistic observations involve observing behavior in its natural
context. A developmental psychologist might observe how children
behave on a playground, at a daycare center, or in the child’s own
home. While this research approach provides a glimpse into how
children behave in their natural settings, researchers have very
little control over the types and/or frequencies of displayed
behavior.
In a case study, developmental psychologists collect a great deal of
information from one individual in order to better understand
physical and psychological changes over the lifespan. This particular
approach is an excellent way to better understand individuals, who
are exceptional in some way, but it is especially prone to researcher
bias in interpretation, and it is difficult to generalize conclusions
to the larger population.
In one classic example of this research method being applied to a
study of lifespan development Sigmund Freud analyzed the development
of a child known as “Little Hans” (Freud, 1909/1949). Freud’s
findings helped inform his theories of psychosexual development in
children, which you will learn about later in this chapter. Little
Genie, the subject of a case study discussed in the chapter on
thinking and intelligence, provides another example of how
psychologists examine developmental milestones through detailed
research on a single individual. In Genie’s case, her neglectful and
abusive upbringing led to her being unable to speak until, at age 13,
she was removed from that harmful environment. As she learned to use
language, psychologists were able to compare how her language
acquisition abilities differed when occurring in her late-stage
development compared to the typical acquisition of those skills
during the ages of infancy through early childhood (Fromkin, Krashen,
Curtiss, Rigler, & Rigler, 1974; Curtiss, 1981).
The survey method asks individuals to self-report important
information about their thoughts, experiences, and beliefs. This
particular method can provide large amounts of information in
relatively short amounts of time; however, validity of data collected
in this way relies on honest self-reporting, and the data is
relatively shallow when compared to the depth of information
collected in a case study.
Experiments involve significant control over extraneous variables and
manipulation of the independent variable. As such, experimental
research allows developmental psychologists to make causal statements
about certain variables that are important for the developmental
process. Because experimental research must occur in a controlled
environment, researchers must be cautious about whether behaviors
observed in the laboratory translate to an individual’s natural
environment.
Later in this chapter, you will learn about several experiments in
which toddlers and young children observe scenes or actions so that
researchers can determine at what age specific cognitive abilities
develop. For example, children may observe a quantity of liquid
poured from a short, fat glass into a tall, skinny glass. As the
experimenters question the children about what occurred, the
subjects’ answers help psychologists understand at what age a child
begins to comprehend that the volume of liquid remained the same
although the shapes of the containers differs.
Across these three domains—physical, cognitive, and psychosocial—the
normative approach{: data-type=“term”} to development is also
discussed. This approach asks, “What is normal development?” In the
early decades of the 20th century, normative psychologists studied large
numbers of children at various ages to determine norms (i.e., average
ages) of when most children reach specific developmental milestones in
each of the three domains (Gesell, 1933, 1939, 1940; Gesell & Ilg, 1946;
Hall, 1904). Although children develop at slightly different rates, we
can use these age-related averages as general guidelines to compare
children with same-age peers to determine the approximate ages they
should reach specific normative events called developmental
milestones{: data-type=“term”} (e.g., crawling, walking, writing,
dressing, naming colors, speaking in sentences, and starting puberty).
Not all normative events are universal, meaning they are not experienced
by all individuals across all cultures. Biological milestones, such as
puberty, tend to be universal, but social milestones, such as the age
when children begin formal schooling, are not necessarily universal;
instead, they affect most individuals in a particular culture{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} (Gesell & Ilg, 1946). For example, in
developed countries children begin school around 5 or 6 years old, but
in developing countries, like Nigeria, children often enter school at an
advanced age, if at all (Huebler, 2005; United Nations Educational,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2013).
To better understand the normative approach, imagine two new mothers,
Louisa and Kimberly, who are close friends and have children around the
same age. Louisa’s daughter is 14 months old, and Kimberly’s son is 12
months old. According to the normative approach, the average age a child
starts to walk is 12 months. However, at 14 months Louisa’s daughter
still isn’t walking. She tells Kimberly she is worried that something
might be wrong with her baby. Kimberly is surprised because her son
started walking when he was only 10 months old. Should Louisa be
worried? Should she be concerned if her daughter is not walking by 15
months or 18 months?
See also
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) describes the
developmental milestones for children from 2 months through 5 years
old. After reviewing the information, take this
quiz to see how well you
recall what you’ve learned. If you are a parent with concerns about
your child’s development, contact your pediatrician.
There are many different theoretical approaches regarding human
development. As we evaluate them in this chapter, recall that
developmental psychology focuses on how people change, and keep in mind
that all the approaches that we present in this chapter address
questions of change: Is the change smooth or uneven (continuous versus
discontinuous)? Is this pattern of change the same for everyone, or are
there many different patterns of change (one course of development
versus many courses)? How do genetics and environment interact to
influence development (nature versus nurture)?
Continuous development{: data-type=“term”} views development as a
cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills
([link]). With this type of development,
there is gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s physical
growth: adding inches to her height year by year. In contrast, theorists
who view development as discontinuous{: data-type=“term”} believe
that development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific
times or ages. With this type of development, the change is more sudden,
such as an infant’s ability to conceive object permanence.
Is development essentially the same, or universal, for all children
(i.e., there is one course of development) or does development follow a
different course for each child, depending on the child’s specific
genetics and environment (i.e., there are many courses of development)?
Do people across the world share more similarities or more differences
in their development? How much do culture and genetics influence a
child’s behavior?
Stage theories hold that the sequence of development is universal. For
example, in cross-cultural studies of language development, children
from around the world reach language milestones in a similar sequence
(Gleitman & Newport, 1995). Infants in all cultures coo before they
babble. They begin babbling at about the same age and utter their first
word around 12 months old. Yet we live in diverse contexts that have a
unique effect on each of us. For example, researchers once believed that
motor development follows one course for all children regardless of
culture. However, child care practices vary by culture, and different
practices have been found to accelerate or inhibit achievement of
developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, and walking
(Karasik, Adolph, Tamis-LeMonda, & Bornstein, 2010).
For instance, let’s look at the Aché society in Paraguay. They spend a
significant amount of time foraging in forests. While foraging, Aché
mothers carry their young children, rarely putting them down in order to
protect them from getting hurt in the forest. Consequently, their
children walk much later: They walk around 23–25 months old, in
comparison to infants in Western cultures who begin to walk around 12
months old. However, as Aché children become older, they are allowed
more freedom to move about, and by about age 9, their motor skills
surpass those of U.S. children of the same age: Aché children are able
to climb trees up to 25 feet tall and use machetes to chop their way
through the forest (Kaplan & Dove, 1987). As you can see, our
development is influenced by multiple contexts, so the timing of basic
motor functions may vary across cultures. However, the functions
themselves are present in all societies
([link]).
Are we who we are because of nature{: data-type=“term”} (biology
and genetics), or are we who we are because of nurture{:
data-type=“term”} (our environment and culture)? This longstanding
question is known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It
seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of
our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by
our environment, including our parents, peers, and culture. For
instance, why do biological children sometimes act like their parents—is
it because of genetics or because of early childhood environment and
what the child has learned from the parents? What about children who are
adopted—are they more like their biological families or more like their
adoptive families? And how can siblings from the same family be so
different?
We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents,
such as eye color, height, and certain personality traits. Beyond our
basic genotype, however, there is a deep interaction between our genes
and our environment: Our unique experiences in our environment influence
whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time,
our genes influence how we interact with our environment (Diamond, 2009;
Lobo, 2008). This chapter will show that there is a reciprocal
interaction between nature and nurture as they both shape who we become,
but the debate continues as to the relative contributions of each.
Tip
Clinical Pearl
The Achievement Gap—How Does Socioeconomic Status Affect Development?
The achievement gap refers to the persistent difference in grades,
test scores, and graduation rates that exist among students of
different ethnicities, races, and—in certain subjects—sexes
(Winerman, 2011). Research suggests that these achievement gaps are
strongly influenced by differences in socioeconomic factors that
exist among the families of these children. While the researchers
acknowledge that programs aimed at reducing such socioeconomic
discrepancies would likely aid in equalizing the aptitude and
performance of children from different backgrounds, they recognize
that such large-scale interventions would be difficult to achieve.
Therefore, it is recommended that programs aimed at fostering
aptitude and achievement among disadvantaged children may be the best
option for dealing with issues related to academic achievement gaps
(Duncan & Magnuson, 2005).
Low-income children perform significantly more poorly than their
middle- and high-income peers on a number of educational variables:
They have significantly lower standardized test scores, graduation
rates, and college entrance rates, and they have much higher school
dropout rates. There have been attempts to correct the achievement
gap through state and federal legislation, but what if the problems
start before the children even enter school?
Psychologists Betty Hart and Todd Risley (2006) spent their careers
looking at early language ability and progression of children in
various income levels. In one longitudinal study, they found that
although all the parents in the study engaged and interacted with
their children, middle- and high-income parents interacted with their
children differently than low-income parents. After analyzing 1,300
hours of parent-child interactions, the researchers found that
middle- and high-income parents talk to their children significantly
more, starting when the children are infants. By 3 years old,
high-income children knew almost double the number of words known by
their low-income counterparts, and they had heard an estimated total
of 30 million more words than the low-income counterparts (Hart &
Risley, 2003). And the gaps only become more pronounced. Before
entering kindergarten, high-income children score 60% higher on
achievement tests than their low-income peers (Lee & Burkam, 2002).
There are solutions to this problem. At the University of Chicago,
experts are working with low-income families, visiting them at their
homes, and encouraging them to speak more to their children on a
daily and hourly basis. Other experts are designing preschools in
which students from diverse economic backgrounds are placed in the
same classroom. In this research, low-income children made
significant gains in their language development, likely as a result
of attending the specialized preschool (Schechter & Byeb, 2007). What
other methods or interventions could be used to decrease the
achievement gap? What types of activities could be implemented to
help the children of your community or a neighboring community?
Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from conception to
death. This field of psychology is studied by developmental
psychologists. They view development as a lifelong process that can be
studied scientifically across three developmental domains: physical,
cognitive development, and psychosocial. There are several theories of
development that focus on the following issues: whether development is
continuous or discontinuous, whether development follows one course or
many, and the relative influence of nature versus nurture on
development.
Question
The view that development is a cumulative process, gradually
adding to the same type of skills is known as ________.
nature
nurture
continuous development
discontinuous development {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Developmental psychologists study human growth and development
across three domains. Which of the following is not one of these
domains?
cognitive
psychological
physical
psychosocial {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
How is lifespan development defined?
The study of how we grow and change from conception to death.
The study of how we grow and change in infancy and childhood.
The study of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial growth in
children.
The study of emotions, personality, and social relationships.
{: type=“a”}
Describe the nature versus nurture controversy, and give an
example of a trait and how it might be influenced by each?
The nature versus nurture controversy seeks to understand whether
our personalities and traits are the product of our genetic makeup
and biological factors, or whether they are shaped by our
environment, which includes such things as our parents, peers, and
culture. Today, psychologists agree that both nature and nurture
interact to shape who we become, but the debate over the relative
contributions of each continues. An example would be a child
learning to walk: Nature influences when the physical ability
occurs, but culture can influence when a child masters this skill,
as in Aché culture.
Compare and contrast continuous and discontinuous development.
Continuous development sees our development as a cumulative
process: Changes are gradual. On the other hand, discontinuous
development sees our development as taking place in specific steps
or stages: Changes are sudden.
Why should developmental milestones only be used as a general
guideline for normal child development?
Children develop at different rates. For example, some children
may walk and talk as early as 8 months old, while others may not
do so until well after their first birthday. Each child’s unique
contexts will influence when he reaches these milestones.
How are you different today from the person you were at 6 years old? What about at 16 years old? How are you the same as the person you were at those ages?
Your 3-year-old daughter is not yet potty trained. Based on what you know about the normative approach, should you be concerned? Why or why not?
domain of lifespan development that examines emotions,
personality, and social relationships
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Discuss Freud’s
theory of psychosexual development * Describe the major tasks of
child and adult psychosocial development according to Erikson *
Discuss Piaget’s view of cognitive development and apply the stages
to understanding childhood cognition * Describe Kohlberg’s theory of
moral development
There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and
develop into happy, healthy adults. We explore several of these theories
in this section.
Sigmund Freudpastehere (1856–1939)
believed that personality develops during early childhood. For Freud,
childhood experiences shape our personalities and behavior as adults.
Freud viewed development as discontinuous; he believed that each of us
must pass through a series of stages during childhood, and that if we
lack proper nurturance and parenting during a stage, we may become
stuck, or fixated, in that stage. Freud’s stages are called the stages
of psychosexual development{: data-type=“term”}. According to
Freud, children’s pleasure-seeking urges are focused on a different area
of the body, called an erogenous zone, at each of the five stages of
development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
While most of Freud’s ideas have not found support in modern research,
we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of
psychology. Psychologists today dispute Freud’s psychosexual stages as a
legitimate explanation for how one’s personality develops, but what we
can take away from Freud’s theory is that personality is shaped, in some
part, by experiences we have in childhood. These stages are discussed in
detail in the chapter on personality.
Erik Eriksonpastehere (1902–1994)
([link]), another stage theorist, took
Freud’s theory and modified it as psychosocial theory. Erikson’s
psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our
development rather than its sexual nature. While Freud believed that
personality is shaped only in childhood, Erikson proposed that
personality development takes place all through the lifespan. Erikson
suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of
self, or what he called the ego identity.
{:
#Figure_09_03_Erikson}
Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence
in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we
experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy
through late adulthood. At each stage there is a conflict, or task, that
we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task
results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to
master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development
during infancy (birth to 12 months). Therefore, the primary task of this
stage is trust versus mistrust. Infants are dependent upon their
caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their
infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby
will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers
who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety,
fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn
that they can control their actions and act on the environment to get
results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of
the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task
is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt, by working
to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we
might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who
wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits
might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic
decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the
opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her
abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are
capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world
through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool
children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning
to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool
children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence
and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this
stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled—may develop feelings of
guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child’s initiative?
During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task
of industry versus inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to
their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of
pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities,
and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don’t
measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help
children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and
their abilities?
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity versus
role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is
developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as
“Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most
adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit.
Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of
identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the
face of problems and other people’s perspectives. What happens to
apathetic adolescents, who do not make a conscious search for identity,
or those who are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the
future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role
confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the
future.
People in early adulthood (i.e., 20s through early 40s) are concerned
with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self
in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said
that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate
relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive
self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and
emotional isolation.
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle
adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle
adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves
finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others,
through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising
children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation,
having little connection with others and little interest in productivity
and self-improvement.
From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development
known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called
integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect
on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of
failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of
integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets.
However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if
their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should
have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with
feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.
[link] summarizes the stages of Erikson’s theory.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
Stage
Age (years)
Developmental Task
Description
1
0–1
Trust vs. mistrust
Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection,
will be met
2
1–3
Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
Develop a sense of independence in many tasks
3
3–6
Initiative vs. guilt
Take initiative on some activities—may develop guilt when unsuccessful
or boundaries overstepped
4
7–11
Industry vs. inferiority
Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of
inferiority when not
5
12–18
Identity vs. confusion
Experiment with and develop identity and roles
6
19–29
Intimacy vs. isolation
Establish intimacy and relationships with others
7
30–64
Generativity vs. stagnation
Contribute to society and be part of a family
8
65–
Integrity vs. despair
Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions
Jean Piaget (1896–1980) is
another stage theorist who studied childhood development
([link]). Instead of approaching development
from a psychoanalytical or psychosocial perspective, Piaget focused on
children’s cognitive growth. He believed that thinking is a central
aspect of development and that children are naturally inquisitive.
However, he said that children do not think and reason like adults
(Piaget, 1930, 1932). His theory of cognitive development holds that our
cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies
the discontinuity approach to development. As we progress to a new
stage, there is a distinct shift in how we think and reason.
Piaget said that children develop schemata to help them understand the
world. Schemata are concepts (mental models)
that are used to help us categorize and interpret information. By the
time children have reached adulthood, they have created schemata for
almost everything. When children learn new information, they adjust
their schemata through two processes: assimilation and accommodation.
First, they assimilate new information or experiences in terms of their
current schemata: assimilation is when they
take in information that is comparable to what they already know.Accommodation describes when they change their
schemata based on new information. This process continues as children
interact with their environment.
For example, 2-year-old Blake learned the schema for dogs because his
family has a Labrador retriever. When Blake sees other dogs in his
picture books, he says, “Look mommy, dog!” Thus, he has assimilated them
into his schema for dogs. One day, Blake sees a sheep for the first time
and says, “Look mommy, dog!” Having a basic schema that a dog is an
animal with four legs and fur, Blake thinks all furry, four-legged
creatures are dogs. When Blake’s mom tells him that the animal he sees
is a sheep, not a dog, Blake must accommodate his schema for dogs to
include more information based on his new experiences. Blake’s schema
for dog was too broad, since not all furry, four-legged creatures are
dogs. He now modifies his schema for dogs and forms a new one for sheep.
Like Freud and Erikson, Piaget thought development unfolds in a series
of stages approximately associated with age ranges. He proposed a theory
of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
([link]).
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Age (years)
Stage
Description
Developmental issues
0–2
Sensorimotor
World experienced through senses and actions
Object permanence
Stranger anxiety
2–6
Preoperational
Use words and images to represent things, but lack logical reasoning
Pretend play
Egocentrism
Language development
7–11
Concrete operational
Understand concrete events and analogies logically; perform arithmetical
operations
The first stage is the sensorimotor stage,
which lasts from birth to about 2 years of age. During this stage, children
learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. Young
children put objects in their mouths to see if the items are edible, and
once they can grasp objects, they may shake or bang them to see if they
make sounds. Between 5 and 18 months, the child develops
object permanence, which is the understanding that even
if something is out of sight, it still exists (Bogartz, Shinskey, &
Schilling, 2000). According to Piaget, young infants do not remember an
object after it has been removed from sight. Piaget studied infants’
reactions when a toy was first shown to an infant and then hidden under
a blanket. Infants who had already developed object permanence would
reach for the hidden toy, indicating that they knew it still existed,
whereas infants who had not developed object permanence would appear
confused.
At around 18 months of age, the child begins to acquire symobolization; a process
in which the child develops the ability to use words and mental symbols represeting
those words, such as a ball. The child can then
use mental representation of or visual image of the word ball.
See also
Please take a few minutes to view this brief
video demonstrating different
children’s ability to understand object permanence.
In Piaget’s view, around the same time children develop object
permanence, they also begin to exhibit stranger anxiety, which is a fear
of unfamiliar people. Babies may demonstrate this by crying and turning
away from a stranger, by clinging to a caregiver, or by attempting to
reach their arms toward familiar faces such as parents. Stranger anxiety
results when a child is unable to assimilate the stranger into an
existing schema; therefore, she can’t predict what her experience with
that stranger will be like, which results in a fear response.
Complete acquisition of object permanence marks the
transition from sensorimotor stage to preoperational stage of development.
Piaget’s second stage is the preoperational stage,
which is from approximately 2 to 7 years old. In this
stage, children further develop the ability to use symbols
to represent words, images, and ideas. Semiotic function refers to the child’s
ability to represent an event, object or concept with a signifier such as language,
symbolic gesture or mental object. For example, they may start using two-word phrases
from one-word utterances (Dada home for “daddy is home”)
This development enables children to engage in pretend play. A child’s
arms might become airplane wings as he zooms around the room, or a child
with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Children also
begin to use language in the preoperational stage, but they cannot
understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information (the term
operational refers to logical manipulation of information, so children
at this stage are considered to be pre-operational). Children’s logic
is based on their own personal knowledge of the world so far, rather
than on conventional knowledge. For example, dad gave a slice of pizza
to 10-year-old Keiko and another slice to her 3-year-old brother, Kenny.
Kenny’s pizza slice was cut into five pieces, so Kenny told his sister
that he got more pizza than she did. Children in this stage cannot
perform mental operations because they have not developed an
understanding of conservation, which is the
idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still
equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added.
Conservation occurs because of centration and irreversibility .
In centration , children focus on only one aspect of an object or event.
For instance, they perceive larger quantity of liquid in a thinner glass,
because they only focus on the height of the liquid column, while ignoring its width.
If the liquid is poured from a wider glass to a thinner glass even when they are
obersving, they still consider the liquid in the thinner glass to be more. This is
because, they can not mentally undo the action, ie, they cannot mentally pour the liquid
back to the broader glass— irreversibility .
See also
This video shows a 4.5-year-old
boy in the preoperational stage as he responds to Piaget’s
conservation tasks.
During this stage, we also expect children to display
egocentrism, which means that the child is not
able to take the perspective of others. A child at this stage thinks
that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just as they do. Let’s look at
Kenny and Keiko again. Keiko’s birthday is coming up, so their mom takes
Kenny to the toy store to choose a present for his sister. He selects an
Iron Man action figure for her, thinking that if he likes the toy, his
sister will too. An egocentric child is not able to infer the
perspective of other people and instead attributes his own perspective. Animism
is a tendency of the children in this stage to endow life-like characteristics to
inanimate objetcs or events. So, they may ask questions like, “why is the so so mad?”
See also
Piaget developed the Three-Mountain Task to determine the level of
egocentrism displayed by children. Children view a 3-dimensional
mountain scene from one viewpoint, and are asked what another person
at a different viewpoint would see in the same scene. Watch the
Three-Mountain Task in action in this short
video from the University of
Minnesota and the Science Museum of Minnesota.
Children in this stage cannot deal with moral dillemas despite being able
to separate good and bad. If you present them with a scenario “who should be
punished more, a person who broke 10 plates by accident or another who broke 1 plate
intentionally?” They may respond, the person who broke 10 plates. Immanent justice
refers to the beleif among these children that punishment for bad actions is must.
Early in this stage, children have no concept of cause and effect; later, however, they
develop a type of magical thinking termed phenomenolistic causality . In this, the child
thinks events that occurs together cause one another, for instance bad thoughts cause accidents.
Piaget’s third stage is the concrete operational stage
, which occurs from about 7 to 11 years old. In this
stage, children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they
have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory
strategies. They can perform mathematical operations and understand
transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and
multiplication is the opposite of division. In this stage, children also
master the concept of conservation: Even if something changes shape, its
mass, volume, and number stay the same. For example, if you pour water
from a tall, thin glass to a short, fat glass, you still have the same
amount of water. Remember Keiko and Kenny and the pizza? How did Keiko
know that Kenny was wrong when he said that he had more pizza?
Children in the concrete operational stage also understand the principle
of reversibility, which means that objects can
be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition.
Take, for example, water that you poured into the short, fat glass: You
can pour water from the fat glass back to the thin glass and still have
the same amount (minus a couple of drops).
The fourth, and last, stage in Piaget’s theory is the
formal operational stage , which is from about age 11 to
adulthood. Whereas children in the concrete operational stage are able
to think logically only about concrete events, children in the formal
operational stage can also deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical
situations. Children in this stage can use abstract thinking to problem
solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions. In
adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. For example, a 15-year-old
with a very small pimple on her face might think it is huge and
incredibly visible, under the mistaken impression that others must share
her perceptions.
As with other major contributors of theories of development, several of
Piaget’s ideas have come under criticism based on the results of further
research. For example, several contemporary studies support a model of
development that is more continuous than Piaget’s discrete stages
(Courage & Howe, 2002; Siegler, 2005, 2006). Many others suggest that
children reach cognitive milestones earlier than Piaget describes
(Baillargeon, 2004; de Hevia & Spelke, 2010).
According to Piaget, the highest level of cognitive development is
formal operational thought, which develops between 11 and 20 years old.
However, many developmental psychologists disagree with Piaget,
suggesting a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as the
postformal stage (Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette, 2006; Sinnott,
1998). In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations
and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults
develop principles that depend on contexts. One way that we can see the
difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in
formal operations is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged
issues.
It seems that once we reach adulthood our problem solving abilities
change: As we attempt to solve problems, we tend to think more deeply
about many areas of our lives, such as relationships, work, and politics
(Labouvie-Vief & Diehl, 1999). Because of this, postformal thinkers are
able to draw on past experiences to help them solve new problems.
Problem-solving strategies using postformal thought vary, depending on
the situation. What does this mean? Adults can recognize, for example,
that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a
disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution to a
disagreement with a significant other.
A major task beginning in childhood and continuing into adolescence is
discerning right from wrong. Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} (1927–1987) extended upon the foundation
that Piaget built regarding cognitive development. Kohlberg believed
that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of
stages. To develop this theory, Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas to people
of all ages, and then he analyzed their answers to find evidence of
their particular stage of moral development. Before reading about the
stages, take a minute to consider how you would answer one of Kohlberg’s
best-known moral dilemmas, commonly known as the Heinz dilemma:
In Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer.
There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a
form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was
charging ten times what the drug cost him to make. He paid $200 for
the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick
woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money,
but he could only get together about $1,000, which is half of what it
cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to
sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I
discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” So Heinz
got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for
his wife. Should the husband have done that? (Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379)
How would you answer this dilemma? Kohlberg was not interested in
whether you answer yes or no to the dilemma: Instead, he was interested
in the reasoning behind your answer.
After presenting people with this and various other moral dilemmas,
Kohlberg reviewed people’s responses and placed them in different
stages of moral reasoning{: data-type=“term”}
([link]). According to Kohlberg, an
individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality
(before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early
adolescence), and toward attaining post-conventional morality (once
formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve.
Kohlberg placed in the highest stage responses that reflected the
reasoning that Heinz should steal the drug because his wife’s life is
more important than the pharmacist making money. The value of a human
life overrides the pharmacist’s greed.
{:
#Figure_09_03_KohlStage}
It is important to realize that even those people who have the most
sophisticated, post-conventional reasons for some choices may make other
choices for the simplest of pre-conventional reasons. Many psychologists
agree with Kohlberg’s theory of moral development but point out that
moral reasoning is very different from moral behavior. Sometimes what we
say we would do in a situation is not what we actually do in that
situation. In other words, we might “talk the talk,” but not “walk the
walk.”
How does this theory apply to males and females? Kohlberg (1969) felt
that more males than females move past stage four in their moral
development. He went on to note that women seem to be deficient in their
moral reasoning abilities. These ideas were not well received by Carol
Gilligan, a research assistant of Kohlberg, who consequently developed
her own ideas of moral development. In her groundbreaking book, In a
Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, Gilligan
(1982) criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based only
on upper class White men and boys. She argued that women are not
deficient in their moral reasoning—she proposed that males and females
reason differently. Girls and women focus more on staying connected and
the importance of interpersonal relationships. Therefore, in the Heinz
dilemma, many girls and women respond that Heinz should not steal the
medicine. Their reasoning is that if he steals the medicine, is
arrested, and is put in jail, then he and his wife will be separated,
and she could die while he is still in prison.
There are many theories regarding how babies and children grow and
develop into happy, healthy adults. Sigmund Freud suggested that we pass
through a series of psychosexual stages in which our energy is focused
on certain erogenous zones on the body. Eric Erikson modified Freud’s
ideas and suggested a theory of psychosocial development. Erikson said
that our social interactions and successful completion of social tasks
shape our sense of self. Jean Piaget proposed a theory of cognitive
development that explains how children think and reason as they move
through various stages. Finally, Lawrence Kohlberg turned his attention
to moral development. He said that we pass through three levels of moral
thinking that build on our cognitive development.
Question
The idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists
is called ________.
egocentrism
object permanence
conservation
reversibility {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which theorist proposed that moral thinking proceeds through a
series of stages?
Sigmund Freud
Erik Erikson
John Watson
Lawrence Kohlberg {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
According to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, what is
the main task of the adolescent?
What is the difference between assimilation and accommodation?
Provide examples of each.
Assimilation is when we take in information that is comparable to
what we already know. Accommodation is when we change our schemata
based on new information. An example of assimilation is a child’s
schema of “dog” based on the family’s golden retriever being
expanded to include two newly adopted golden retrievers. An
example of accommodation is that same child’s schema of “dog”
being adjusted to exclude other four-legged furry animals such as
sheep and foxes.
Why was Carol Gilligan critical of Kohlberg’s theory of moral
development?
Gilligan criticized Kohlberg because his theory was based on the
responses of upper class White men and boys, arguing that it was
biased against women. While Kohlberg concluded that women must be
deficient in their moral reasoning abilities, Gilligan disagreed,
suggesting that female moral reasoning is not deficient, just
different.
What is egocentrism? Provide an original example.
Egocentrism is the inability to take the perspective of another
person. This type of thinking is common in young children in the
preoperational stage of cognitive development. An example might be
that upon seeing his mother crying, a young child gives her his
favorite stuffed animal to make her feel better.
final stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from age
11 and up, children are able to deal with abstract ideas and
hypothetical situations ^
second stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive development; from
ages 2 to 7, children learn to use symbols and language but do not
understand mental operations and often think illogically ^
process proposed by Kohlberg; humans move through three stages of
moral development
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Describe the stages of prenatal development and recognize the importance of prenatal care
Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs from infancy through childhood
Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs during adolescence
Discuss physical, cognitive, and emotional development that occurs in adulthood
From the moment we are born until the moment we die, we continue to
develop.
As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, developmental
psychologists often divide our development into three areas: physical
development, cognitive development, and psychosocial development.
Mirroring Erikson’s stages, lifespan development is divided into
different stages that are based on age. We will discuss prenatal,
infant, child, adolescent, and adult development.
How did you come to be who you are? From beginning as a one-cell
structure to your birth, your prenatal development{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} occurred in an orderly and delicate
sequence.
There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and
fetal. Let’s take a look at what happens to the developing baby in each
of these stages.
In the discussion of biopsychology earlier in the book, you learned
about genetics and DNA. A mother and father’s DNA is passed on to the
child at the moment of conception. Conception{: data-type=“term”}
occurs when sperm fertilizes an egg and forms a zygote
([link]). A zygote{:
data-type=“term”} begins as a one-cell structure that is created when a
sperm and egg merge. The genetic makeup and sex of the baby are set at
this point. During the first week after conception, the zygote divides
and multiplies, going from a one-cell structure to two cells, then four
cells, then eight cells, and so on. This process of cell division is
called mitosis{: data-type=“term”}. Mitosis is a fragile process,
and fewer than one-half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two
weeks (Hall, 2004). After 5 days of mitosis there are 100 cells, and
after 9 months there are billions of cells. As the cells divide, they
become more specialized, forming different organs and body parts. In the
germinal stage, the mass of cells has yet to attach itself to the lining
of the mother’s uterus. Once it does, the next stage begins.
After the zygote divides for about 7–10 days and has 150 cells, it
travels down the fallopian tubes and implants itself in the lining of
the uterus. Upon implantation, this multi-cellular organism is called an
embryo{: data-type=“term”}. Now blood vessels grow, forming the
placenta. The placenta{: data-type=“term”} is a structure
connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the
mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord. Basic structures
of the embryo start to develop into areas that will become the head,
chest, and abdomen. During the embryonic stage, the heart begins to beat
and organs form and begin to function. The neural tube forms along the
back of the embryo, developing into the spinal cord and brain.
When the organism is about nine weeks old, the embryo is called a fetus.
At this stage, the fetus is about the size of a kidney bean and begins
to take on the recognizable form of a human being as the “tail” begins
to disappear.
From 9–12 weeks, the sex organs begin to differentiate. At about 16
weeks, the fetus is approximately 4.5 inches long. Fingers and toes are
fully developed, and fingerprints are visible. By the time the fetus
reaches the sixth month of development (24 weeks), it weighs up to 1.4
pounds. Hearing has developed, so the fetus can respond to sounds. The
internal organs, such as the lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, have
formed enough that a fetus born prematurely at this point has a chance
to survive outside of the mother’s womb. Throughout the fetal stage the
brain continues to grow and develop, nearly doubling in size from weeks
16 to 28. Around 36 weeks, the fetus is almost ready for birth. It
weighs about 6 pounds and is about 18.5 inches long, and by week 37 all
of the fetus’s organ systems are developed enough that it could survive
outside the mother’s uterus without many of the risks associated with
premature birth. The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length
until approximately 40 weeks. By then, the fetus has very little room to
move around and birth becomes imminent. The progression through the
stages is shown in [link].
{: #Figure_09_02_Stages}
See also
For an amazing look at prenatal development and the process of birth,
view the video Life’s Greatest
Miracle from Nova and PBS.
During each prenatal stage, genetic and environmental factors can affect
development. The developing fetus is completely dependent on the mother
for life. It is important that the mother takes good care of herself and
receives prenatal care{: data-type=“term”}, which is medical care
during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the
fetus ([link]). According to the National
Institutes of Health ([NIH], 2013), routine prenatal care is important
because it can reduce the risk of complications to the mother and fetus
during pregnancy. In fact, women who are trying to become pregnant or
who may become pregnant should discuss pregnancy planning with their
doctor. They may be advised, for example, to take a vitamin containing
folic acid, which helps prevent certain birth defects, or to monitor
aspects of their diet or exercise routines.
{: #Figure_09_02_Prenatal}
Recall that when the zygote attaches to the wall of the mother’s uterus,
the placenta is formed. The placenta provides nourishment and oxygen to
the fetus. Most everything the mother ingests, including food, liquid,
and even medication, travels through the placenta to the fetus, hence
the common phrase “eating for two.” Anything the mother is exposed to in
the environment affects the fetus; if the mother is exposed to something
harmful, the child can show life-long effects.
A teratogen{: data-type=“term”} is any environmental
agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the
developing embryo or fetus. There are different types of teratogens.
Alcohol and most drugs cross the placenta and affect the fetus. Alcohol
is not safe to drink in any amount during pregnancy. Alcohol use during
pregnancy has been found to be the leading preventable cause of mental
retardation in children in the United States (Maier & West, 2001).
Excessive maternal drinking while pregnant can cause fetal alcohol
spectrum disorders with life-long consequences for the child ranging in
severity from minor to major ([link]). Fetal
alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a collection of birth defects
associated with heavy consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.
Physically, children with FASD may have a small head size and abnormal
facial features. Cognitively, these children may have poor judgment,
poor impulse control, higher rates of ADHD, learning issues, and lower
IQ scores. These developmental problems and delays persist into
adulthood (Streissguth et al., 2004). Based on studies conducted on
animals, it also has been suggested that a mother’s alcohol consumption
during pregnancy may predispose her child to like alcohol (Youngentob et
al., 2007).
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Facial Features
Facial Feature
Potential Effect of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Head size
Below-average head circumference
Eyes
Smaller than average eye opening, skin folds at corners of eyes
Nose
Low nasal bridge, short nose
Midface
Smaller than average midface size
Lip and philtrum
Thin upper lip, indistinct philtrum
Smoking is also considered a teratogen because nicotine travels through
the placenta to the fetus. When the mother smokes, the developing baby
experiences a reduction in blood oxygen levels. According to the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (2013), smoking while pregnant can
result in premature birth, low-birth-weight infants, stillbirth, and
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS).
Heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine, almost all prescription medicines, and
most over-the counter medications are also considered teratogens. Babies
born with a heroin addiction need heroin just like an adult addict. The
child will need to be gradually weaned from the heroin under medical
supervision; otherwise, the child could have seizures and die. Other
teratogens include radiation, viruses such as HIV and herpes, and
rubella (German measles). Women in the United States are much less
likely to be afflicted with rubella because most women received
childhood immunizations or vaccinations that protect the body from
disease.
Each organ of the fetus develops during a specific period in the
pregnancy, called the critical or sensitive period{:
data-type=“term”} ([link]). For example,
research with primate models of FASD has demonstrated that the time
during which a developing fetus is exposed to alcohol can dramatically
affect the appearance of facial characteristics associated with fetal
alcohol syndrome. Specifically, this research suggests that alcohol
exposure that is limited to day 19 or 20 of gestation can lead to
significant facial abnormalities in the offspring (Ashley, Magnuson,
Omnell, & Clarren, 1999). Given regions of the brain also show sensitive
periods during which they are most susceptible to the teratogenic
effects of alcohol (Tran & Kelly, 2003).
See also
Should Women Who Use Drugs During Pregnancy Be Arrested and
Jailed?
As you now know, women who use drugs or alcohol during pregnancy can
cause serious lifelong harm to their child. Some people have
advocated mandatory screenings for women who are pregnant and have a
history of drug abuse, and if the women continue using, to arrest,
prosecute, and incarcerate them (Figdor & Kaeser, 1998). This policy
was tried in Charleston, South Carolina, as recently as 20 years ago.
The policy was called the Interagency Policy on Management of
Substance Abuse During Pregnancy, and had disastrous results.
The Interagency Policy applied to patients attending the
obstetrics clinic at MUSC, which primarily serves patients who are
indigent or on Medicaid. It did not apply to private obstetrical
patients. The policy required patient education about the harmful
effects of substance abuse during pregnancy… . [A] statement
also warned patients that protection of unborn and newborn
children from the harms of illegal drug abuse could involve the
Charleston police, the Solicitor of the Ninth Judicial Court, and
the Protective Services Division of the Department of Social
Services (DSS). (Jos, Marshall, & Perlmutter, 1995, pp. 120–121)
This policy seemed to deter women from seeking prenatal care,
deterred them from seeking other social services, and was applied
solely to low-income women, resulting in lawsuits. The program was
canceled after 5 years, during which 42 women were arrested. A
federal agency later determined that the program involved human
experimentation without the approval and oversight of an
institutional review board (IRB). What were the flaws in the program
and how would you correct them? What are the ethical implications of
charging pregnant women with child abuse?
The average newborn weighs approximately 7.5 pounds. Although small, a
newborn is not completely helpless because his reflexes and sensory
capacities help him interact with the environment from the moment of
birth. All healthy babies are born with newborn reflexes{:
data-type=“term”}: inborn automatic responses to particular forms of
stimulation. Reflexes help the newborn survive until it is capable of
more complex behaviors—these reflexes are crucial to survival. They are
present in babies whose brains are developing normally and usually
disappear around 4–5 months old. Let’s take a look at some of these
newborn reflexes. The rooting reflex is the newborn’s response to
anything that touches her cheek: When you stroke a baby’s cheek, she
naturally turns her head in that direction and begins to suck. The
sucking reflex is the automatic, unlearned, sucking motions that infants
do with their mouths. Several other interesting newborn reflexes can be
observed. For instance, if you put your finger into a newborn’s hand,
you will witness the grasping reflex, in which a baby automatically
grasps anything that touches his palms. The Moro reflex is the newborn’s
response when she feels like she is falling. The baby spreads her arms,
pulls them back in, and then (usually) cries. How do you think these
reflexes promote survival in the first months of life?
See also
Take a few minutes to view this brief video
clip illustrating several
newborn reflexes.
What can young infants see, hear, and smell? Newborn infants’ sensory
abilities are significant, but their senses are not yet fully developed.
Many of a newborn’s innate preferences facilitate interaction with
caregivers and other humans. Although vision is their least developed
sense, newborns already show a preference for faces. Babies who are just
a few days old also prefer human voices, they will listen to voices
longer than sounds that do not involve speech (Vouloumanos & Werker,
2004), and they seem to prefer their mother’s voice over a stranger’s
voice (Mills & Melhuish, 1974). In an interesting experiment, 3-week-old
babies were given pacifiers that played a recording of the infant’s
mother’s voice and of a stranger’s voice. When the infants heard their
mother’s voice, they sucked more strongly at the pacifier (Mills &
Melhuish, 1974). Newborns also have a strong sense of smell. For
instance, newborn babies can distinguish the smell of their own mother
from that of others. In a study by MacFarlane (1978), 1-week-old babies
who were being breastfed were placed between two gauze pads. One gauze
pad was from the bra of a nursing mother who was a stranger, and the
other gauze pad was from the bra of the infant’s own mother. More than
two-thirds of the week-old babies turned toward the gauze pad with their
mother’s scent.
In infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, the body’s physical
development is rapid ([link]). On average,
newborns weigh between 5 and 10 pounds, and a newborn’s weight typically
doubles in six months and triples in one year. By 2 years old the weight
will have quadrupled, so we can expect that a 2 year old should weigh
between 20 and 40 pounds. The average length of a newborn is 19.5
inches, increasing to 29.5 inches by 12 months and 34.4 inches by 2
years old (WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group, 2006).
{: #Figure_09_04_Growth}
During infancy and childhood, growth does not occur at a steady rate
(Carel, Lahlou, Roger, & Chaussain, 2004). Growth slows between 4 and 6
years old: During this time children gain 5–7 pounds and grow about 2–3
inches per year. Once girls reach 8–9 years old, their growth rate
outpaces that of boys due to a pubertal growth spurt. This growth spurt
continues until around 12 years old, coinciding with the start of the
menstrual cycle. By 10 years old, the average girl weighs 88 pounds, and
the average boy weighs 85 pounds.
We are born with all of the brain cells that we will ever have—about
100–200 billion neurons (nerve cells) whose function is to store and
transmit information (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar, 1997). However, the
nervous system continues to grow and develop. Each neural pathway forms
thousands of new connections during infancy and toddlerhood. This period
of rapid neural growth is called blooming. Neural pathways continue to
develop through puberty. The blooming period of neural growth is then
followed by a period of pruning, where neural connections are reduced.
It is thought that pruning causes the brain to function more
efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills (Hutchinson,
2011). Blooming occurs during the first few years of life, and pruning
continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the
brain.
The size of our brains increases rapidly. For example, the brain of a
2-year-old is 55% of its adult size, and by 6 years old the brain is
about 90% of its adult size (Tanner, 1978). During early childhood (ages
3–6), the frontal lobes grow rapidly. Recalling our discussion of the 4
lobes of the brain earlier in this book, the frontal lobes are
associated with planning, reasoning, memory, and impulse control.
Therefore, by the time children reach school age, they are
developmentally capable of controlling their attention and behavior.
Through the elementary school years, the frontal, temporal, occipital,
and parietal lobes all grow in size. The brain growth spurts experienced
in childhood tend to follow Piaget’s sequence of cognitive development,
so that significant changes in neural functioning account for cognitive
advances (Kolb & Whishaw, 2009; Overman, Bachevalier, Turner, & Peuster,
1992).
Motor development occurs in an orderly sequence as infants move from
reflexive reactions (e.g., sucking and rooting) to more advanced motor
functioning. For instance, babies first learn to hold their heads up,
then to sit with assistance, and then to sit unassisted, followed later
by crawling and then walking.
Motor skills{: data-type=“term”} refer to our ability to move our
bodies and manipulate objects. Fine motor skills{:
data-type=“term”} focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes,
and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., grasping a toy, writing
with a pencil, and using a spoon). Gross motor skills{:
data-type=“term”} focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and
legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and
jumping).
As motor skills develop, there are certain developmental milestones that
young children should achieve ([link]). For each
milestone there is an average age, as well as a range of ages in which
the milestone should be reached. An example of a developmental milestone
is sitting. On average, most babies sit alone at 7 months old. Sitting
involves both coordination and muscle strength, and 90% of babies
achieve this milestone between 5 and 9 months old. In another example,
babies on average are able to hold up their head at 6 weeks old, and 90%
of babies achieve this between 3 weeks and 4 months old. If a baby is
not holding up his head by 4 months old, he is showing a delay. If the
child is displaying delays on several milestones, that is reason for
concern, and the parent or caregiver should discuss this with the
child’s pediatrician. Some developmental delays can be identified and
addressed through early intervention.
Developmental Milestones, Ages 2–5 Years
Age (years)
Physical
Personal/Social
Language
Cognitive
2
Kicks a ball; walks up and down stairs
Plays alongside other children; copies adults
Points to objects when named; puts 2–4 words together in a sentence
Sorts shapes and colors; follows 2-step instructions
3
Climbs and runs; pedals tricycle
Takes turns; expresses many emotions; dresses self
Names familiar things; uses pronouns
Plays make believe; works toys with parts (levers, handles)
4
Catches balls; uses scissors
Prefers social play to solo play; knows likes and interests
Knows songs and rhymes by memory
Names colors and numbers; begins writing letters
5
Hops and swings; uses fork and spoon
Distinguishes real from pretend; likes to please friends
Speaks clearly; uses full sentences
Counts to 10 or higher; prints some letters and copies basic shapes
In addition to rapid physical growth, young children also exhibit
significant development of their cognitive abilities. Piaget thought
that children’s ability to understand objects—such as learning that a
rattle makes a noise when shaken—was a cognitive skill that develops
slowly as a child matures and interacts with the environment. Today,
developmental psychologists think Piaget was incorrect. Researchers have
found that even very young children understand objects and how they work
long before they have experience with those objects (Baillargeon, 1987;
Baillargeon, Li, Gertner, & Wu, 2011). For example, children as young as
3 months old demonstrated knowledge of the properties of objects that
they had only viewed and did not have prior experience with them. In one
study, 3-month-old infants were shown a truck rolling down a track and
behind a screen. The box, which appeared solid but was actually hollow,
was placed next to the track. The truck rolled past the box as would be
expected. Then the box was placed on the track to block the path of the
truck. When the truck was rolled down the track this time, it continued
unimpeded. The infants spent significantly more time looking at this
impossible event ([link]). Baillargeon
(1987) concluded that they knew solid objects cannot pass through each
other. Baillargeon’s findings suggest that very young children have an
understanding of objects and how they work, which Piaget (1954) would
have said is beyond their cognitive abilities due to their limited
experiences in the world.
{: #Figure_09_04_TruckBox}
Just as there are physical milestones that we expect children to reach,
there are also cognitive milestones. It is helpful to be aware of these
milestones as children gain new abilities to think, problem solve, and
communicate. For example, infants shake their head “no” around 6–9
months, and they respond to verbal requests to do things like “wave
bye-bye” or “blow a kiss” around 9–12 months. Remember Piaget’s ideas
about object permanence? We can expect children to grasp the concept
that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight by around
8 months old. Because toddlers (i.e., 12–24 months old) have mastered
object permanence, they enjoy games like hide and seek, and they realize
that when someone leaves the room they will come back (Loop, 2013).
Toddlers also point to pictures in books and look in appropriate places
when you ask them to find objects.
Preschool-age children (i.e., 3–5 years old) also make steady progress
in cognitive development. Not only can they count, name colors, and tell
you their name and age, but they can also make some decisions on their
own, such as choosing an outfit to wear. Preschool-age children
understand basic time concepts and sequencing (e.g., before and after),
and they can predict what will happen next in a story. They also begin
to enjoy the use of humor in stories. Because they can think
symbolically, they enjoy pretend play and inventing elaborate characters
and scenarios. One of the most common examples of their cognitive growth
is their blossoming curiosity. Preschool-age children love to ask “Why?”
An important cognitive change occurs in children this age. Recall that
Piaget described 2–3 year olds as egocentric, meaning that they do not
have an awareness of others’ points of view. Between 3 and 5 years old,
children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and
beliefs that are different from their own. This is known as
theory-of-mind (TOM). Children can use this skill to tease others,
persuade their parents to purchase a candy bar, or understand why a
sibling might be angry. When children develop TOM, they can recognize
that others have false beliefs (Dennett, 1987; Callaghan et al., 2005).
See also
False-belief tasks are useful in determining a child’s acquisition of
theory-of-mind (TOM). Take a look at this video
clip showing a false-belief task
involving a box of crayons.
Cognitive skills continue to expand in middle and late childhood (6–11
years old). Thought processes become more logical and organized when
dealing with concrete information ([link]).
Children at this age understand concepts such as the past, present, and
future, giving them the ability to plan and work toward goals.
Additionally, they can process complex ideas such as addition and
subtraction and cause-and-effect relationships. However, children’s
attention spans tend to be very limited until they are around 11 years
old. After that point, it begins to improve through adulthood.
{:
#Figure_09_04_Game}
One well-researched aspect of cognitive development is language
acquisition. As mentioned earlier, the order in which children learn
language structures is consistent across children and cultures (Hatch,
1983). You’ve also learned that some psychological researchers have
proposed that children possess a biological predisposition for language
acquisition.
Starting before birth, babies begin to develop language and
communication skills. At birth, babies apparently recognize their
mother’s voice and can discriminate between the language(s) spoken by
their mothers and foreign languages, and they show preferences for faces
that are moving in synchrony with audible language (Blossom & Morgan,
2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).
Children communicate information through gesturing long before they
speak, and there is some evidence that gesture usage predicts subsequent
language development (Iverson & Goldin-Meadow, 2005). In terms of
producing spoken language, babies begin to coo almost immediately.
Cooing is a one-syllable combination of a consonant and a vowel sound
(e.g., coo or ba). Interestingly, babies replicate sounds from their own
languages. A baby whose parents speak French will coo in a different
tone than a baby whose parents speak Spanish or Urdu. After cooing, the
baby starts to babble. Babbling begins with repeating a syllable, such
as ma-ma, da-da, or ba-ba. When a baby is about 12 months old, we expect
her to say her first word for meaning, and to start combining words for
meaning at about 18 months.
At about 2 years old, a toddler uses between 50 and 200 words; by 3
years old they have a vocabulary of up to 1,000 words and can speak in
sentences. During the early childhood years, children’s vocabulary
increases at a rapid pace. This is sometimes referred to as the
“vocabulary spurt” and has been claimed to involve an expansion in
vocabulary at a rate of 10–20 new words per week. Recent research may
indicate that while some children experience these spurts, it is far
from universal (as discussed in Ganger & Brent, 2004). It has been
estimated that, 5 year olds understand about 6,000 words, speak 2,000
words, and can define words and question their meanings. They can rhyme
and name the days of the week. Seven year olds speak fluently and use
slang and clichés (Stork & Widdowson, 1974).
What accounts for such dramatic language learning by children?
Behaviorist B. F. Skinner thought that we learn language in response to
reinforcement or feedback, such as through parental approval or through
being understood. For example, when a two-year-old child asks for juice,
he might say, “me juice,” to which his mother might respond by giving
him a cup of apple juice. Noam Chomsky (1957) criticized Skinner’s
theory and proposed that we are all born with an innate capacity to
learn language. Chomsky called this mechanism a language acquisition
device (LAD). Who is correct? Both Chomsky and Skinner are right.
Remember that we are a product of both nature and nurture. Researchers
now believe that language acquisition is partially inborn and partially
learned through our interactions with our linguistic environment
(Gleitman & Newport, 1995; Stork & Widdowson, 1974).
Psychosocial development occurs as children form relationships, interact
with others, and understand and manage their feelings. In social and
emotional development, forming healthy attachments is very important and
is the major social milestone of infancy. Attachment{:
data-type=“term”} is a long-standing connection or bond with others.
Developmental psychologists are interested in how infants reach this
milestone. They ask such questions as: How do parent and infant
attachment bonds form? How does neglect affect these bonds? What
accounts for children’s attachment differences?
Researchers Harry Harlow, John Bowlby, and Mary Ainsworth conducted
studies designed to answer these questions. In the 1950s, Harlow
conducted a series of experiments on monkeys. He separated newborn
monkeys from their mothers. Each monkey was presented with two surrogate
mothers. One surrogate monkey was made out of wire mesh, and she could
dispense milk. The other monkey was softer and made from cloth: This
monkey did not dispense milk. Research shows that the monkeys preferred
the soft, cuddly cloth monkey, even though she did not provide any
nourishment. The baby monkeys spent their time clinging to the cloth
monkey and only went to the wire monkey when they needed to be fed.
Prior to this study, the medical and scientific communities generally
thought that babies become attached to the people who provide their
nourishment. However, Harlow (1958) concluded that there was more to the
mother-child bond than nourishment. Feelings of comfort and security are
the critical components to maternal-infant bonding, which leads to
healthy psychosocial development.
See also
Harlow’s studies of monkeys were performed before modern ethics
guidelines were in place, and today his experiments are widely
considered to be unethical and even cruel. Watch this
video to see actual footage
of Harlow’s monkey studies.
Hint
The Mnemonic PAID can help memorise and recall the longterm effects of maternal deprivation as described in the theory of attachment (Bowlby)
Psychopathy (affectionless)
Aggression (increased)
Intelligence (being low)
Depression, delinquency
Building on the work of Harlow and others, John Bowlby developed the
concept of attachment theory. He defined attachment as the affectional
bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother (Bowlby, 1969). An
infant must form this bond with a primary caregiver in order to have
normal social and emotional development. In addition, Bowlby proposed
that this attachment bond is very powerful and continues throughout
life. He used the concept of secure base to define a healthy attachment
between parent and child (1988). A secure base{: data-type=“term”}
is a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he
explores his surroundings. Bowlby said that two things are needed for a
healthy attachment: The caregiver must be responsive to the child’s
physical, social, and emotional needs; and the caregiver and child must
engage in mutually enjoyable interactions (Bowlby, 1969)
([link]).
{: #Figure_09_04_BabySmile}
While Bowlby thought attachment was an all-or-nothing process, Mary
Ainsworth’s (1970) research showed otherwise. Ainsworth wanted to know
if children differ in the ways they bond, and if so, why. To find the
answers, she used the Strange Situation procedure to study attachment
between mothers and their infants (1970). In the Strange Situation, the
mother (or primary caregiver) and the infant (age 12-18 months) are
placed in a room together. There are toys in the room, and the caregiver
and child spend some time alone in the room. After the child has had
time to explore her surroundings, a stranger enters the room. The mother
then leaves her baby with the stranger. After a few minutes, she returns
to comfort her child.
Based on how the infants/toddlers responded to the separation and
reunion, Ainsworth identified three types of parent-child attachments:
secure, avoidant, and resistant (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). A fourth
style, known as disorganized attachment, was later described (Main &
Solomon, 1990). The most common type of attachment—also considered the
healthiest—is called secure attachment{: data-type=“term”}
([link]). In this type of attachment, the
toddler prefers his parent over a stranger. The attachment figure is
used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in
times of stress. Securely attached children were distressed when their
caregivers left the room in the Strange Situation experiment, but when
their caregivers returned, the securely attached children were happy to
see them. Securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive
and responsive to their needs.
{: #Figure_09_04_Secure}
With avoidant attachment, the child is
unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base,
and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent
the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the
child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that
these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive
and inattentive to their needs (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall,
1978).
In cases of resistant attachment, children
tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment
figure’s attempts to interact with them (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). These
children do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful.
During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely
disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the
children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of
the caregivers’ inconsistent level of response to their child.
Finally, children with disorganized attachment{: data-type=“term”}
behaved oddly in the Strange Situation. They freeze, run around the room
in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns
(Main & Solomon, 1990). This type of attachment is seen most often in
kids who have been abused. Research has shown that abuse disrupts a
child’s ability to regulate their emotions.
While Ainsworth’s research has found support in subsequent studies, it
has also met criticism. Some researchers have pointed out that a child’s
temperament may have a strong influence on attachment (Gervai, 2009;
Harris, 2009), and others have noted that attachment varies from culture
to culture, a factor not accounted for in Ainsworth’s research
(Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000; van Ijzendoorn &
Sagi-Schwartz, 2008).
See also
Watch this video to view a
clip of the Strange Situation. Try to identify which type of
attachment baby Lisa exhibits.
Just as attachment is the main psychosocial milestone of infancy, the
primary psychosocial milestone of childhood is the development of a
positive sense of self. How does self-awareness develop? Infants don’t
have a self-concept, which is an understanding of who they are. If you
place a baby in front of a mirror, she will reach out to touch her
image, thinking it is another baby. However, by about 18 months a
toddler will recognize that the person in the mirror is herself. How do
we know this? In a well-known experiment, a researcher placed a red dot
of paint on children’s noses before putting them in front of a mirror
(Amsterdam, 1972). Commonly known as the mirror test, this behavior is
demonstrated by humans and a few other species and is considered
evidence of self-recognition (Archer, 1992). At 18 months old they would
touch their own noses when they saw the paint, surprised to see a spot
on their faces. By 24–36 months old children can name and/or point to
themselves in pictures, clearly indicating self-recognition.
Children from 2–4 years old display a great increase in social behavior
once they have established a self-concept. They enjoy playing with other
children, but they have difficulty sharing their possessions. Also,
through play children explore and come to understand their gender roles
and can label themselves as a girl or boy (Chick, Heilman-Houser, &
Hunter, 2002). By 4 years old, children can cooperate with other
children, share when asked, and separate from parents with little
anxiety. Children at this age also exhibit autonomy, initiate tasks, and
carry out plans. Success in these areas contributes to a positive sense
of self. Once children reach 6 years old, they can identify themselves
in terms of group memberships: “I’m a first grader!” School-age children
compare themselves to their peers and discover that they are competent
in some areas and less so in others (recall Erikson’s task of industry
versus inferiority). At this age, children recognize their own
personality traits as well as some other traits they would like to have.
For example, 10-year-old Layla says, “I’m kind of shy. I wish I could be
more talkative like my friend Alexa.”
Development of a positive self-concept is important to healthy
development. Children with a positive self-concept tend to be more
confident, do better in school, act more independently, and are more
willing to try new activities (Maccoby, 1980; Ferrer & Fugate, 2003).
Formation of a positive self-concept begins in Erikson’s toddlerhood
stage, when children establish autonomy and become confident in their
abilities. Development of self-concept continues in elementary school,
when children compare themselves to others. When the comparison is
favorable, children feel a sense of competence and are motivated to work
harder and accomplish more. Self-concept is re-evaluated in Erikson’s
adolescence stage, as teens form an identity. They internalize the
messages they have received regarding their strengths and weaknesses,
keeping some messages and rejecting others. Adolescents who have
achieved identity formation are capable of contributing positively to
society (Erikson, 1968).
What can parents do to nurture a healthy self-concept? Diana Baumrind
(1971, 1991) thinks parenting style may be a factor. The way we parent
is an important factor in a child’s socioemotional growth. Baumrind
developed and refined a theory describing four parenting styles:
authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and uninvolved. With the
authoritative style{: data-type=“term”}, the parent gives
reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and
affection, and listens to the child’s point of view. Parents set rules
and explain the reasons behind them. They are also flexible and willing
to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases—for example,
temporarily relaxing bedtime rules to allow for a nighttime swim during
a family vacation. Of the four parenting styles, the authoritative style
is the one that is most encouraged in modern American society. American
children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem
and social skills. However, effective parenting styles vary as a
function of culture and, as Small (1999) points out, the authoritative
style is not necessarily preferred or appropriate in all cultures.
In authoritarian style{: data-type=“term”}, the parent places high
value on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly
monitor their children, and express little warmth. In contrast to the
authoritative style, authoritarian parents probably would not relax
bedtime rules during a vacation because they consider the rules to be
set, and they expect obedience. This style can create anxious,
withdrawn, and unhappy kids. However, it is important to point out that
authoritarian parenting is as beneficial as the authoritative style in
some ethnic groups (Russell, Crockett, & Chao, 2010). For instance,
first-generation Chinese American children raised by authoritarian
parents did just as well in school as their peers who were raised by
authoritative parents (Russell et al., 2010).
For parents who employ the permissive style{: data-type=“term”} of
parenting, the kids run the show and anything goes. Permissive parents
make few demands and rarely use punishment. They tend to be very
nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than
parent. In terms of our example of vacation bedtimes, permissive parents
might not have bedtime rules at all—instead they allow the child to
choose his bedtime whether on vacation or not. Not surprisingly,
children raised by permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, and
the permissive parenting style is negatively associated with grades
(Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987). The
permissive style may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as
alcohol abuse (Bahr & Hoffman, 2010), risky sexual behavior especially
among female children (Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, & Bryant, 2002), and
increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children (Parent et
al., 2011). However, there are some positive outcomes associated with
children raised by permissive parents. They tend to have higher
self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression
(Darling, 1999).
With the uninvolved style{: data-type=“term”} of parenting, the
parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as
neglectful. They don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively
few demands. This could be because of severe depression or substance
abuse, or other factors such as the parents’ extreme focus on work.
These parents may provide for the child’s basic needs, but little else.
The children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally
withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an
increased risk of substance abuse (Darling, 1999).
As you can see, parenting styles influence childhood adjustment, but
could a child’s temperament likewise influence parenting?
Temperament{: data-type=“term”} refers to innate traits that
influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment.
Children with easy temperaments demonstrate positive emotions, adapt
well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions.
Conversely, children with difficult temperaments demonstrate negative
emotions and have difficulty adapting to change and regulating their
emotions. Difficult children are much more likely to challenge parents,
teachers, and other caregivers (Thomas, 1984). Therefore, it’s possible
that easy children (i.e., social, adaptable, and easy to soothe) tend to
elicit warm and responsive parenting, while demanding, irritable,
withdrawn children evoke irritation in their parents or cause their
parents to withdraw (Sanson & Rothbart, 1995).
psychology everyday-connection
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics (2007), unstructured
play is an integral part of a child’s development. It builds
creativity, problem solving skills, and social relationships. Play
also allows children to develop a theory-of-mind as they
imaginatively take on the perspective of others.
Outdoor play allows children the opportunity to directly experience
and sense the world around them. While doing so, they may collect
objects that they come across and develop lifelong interests and
hobbies. They also benefit from increased exercise, and engaging in
outdoor play can actually increase how much they enjoy physical
activity. This helps support the development of a healthy heart and
brain. Unfortunately, research suggests that today’s children are
engaging in less and less outdoor play (Clements, 2004). Perhaps, it
is no surprise to learn that lowered levels of physical activity in
conjunction with easy access to calorie-dense foods with little
nutritional value are contributing to alarming levels of childhood
obesity (Karnik & Kanekar, 2012).
Despite the adverse consequences associated with reduced play, some
children are over scheduled and have little free time to engage in
unstructured play. In addition, some schools have taken away recess
time for children in a push for students to do better on standardized
tests, and many schools commonly use loss of recess as a form of
punishment. Do you agree with these practices? Why or why not?
Adolescence is a socially constructed concept. In pre-industrial
society, children were considered adults when they reached physical
maturity, but today we have an extended time between childhood and
adulthood called adolescence. Adolescence{: data-type=“term”} is
the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging
adulthood, which is discussed later. In the United States, adolescence
is seen as a time to develop independence from parents while remaining
connected to them ([link]). The typical
age range of adolescence is from 12 to 18 years, and this stage of
development also has some predictable physical, cognitive, and
psychosocial milestones.
As noted above, adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of
physical changes in puberty is predictable, the onset and pace of
puberty vary widely. Several physical changes occur during puberty, such
as adrenarche and gonadarche{:
data-type=“term”}, the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex glands,
respectively. Also during this time, primary and secondary sexual
characteristics develop and mature. Primary sexual
characteristics{: data-type=“term”} are organs specifically needed
for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in
males. Secondary sexual characteristics{: data-type=“term”} are
physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex
organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and
development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys. Girls
experience menarche{: data-type=“term”}, the beginning of
menstrual periods, usually around 12–13 years old, and boys experience
spermarche{: data-type=“term”}, the first ejaculation, around
13–14 years old.
During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height (i.e.,
growth spurt). For girls this begins between 8 and 13 years old, with
adult height reached between 10 and 16 years old. Boys begin their
growth spurt slightly later, usually between 10 and 16 years old, and
reach their adult height between 13 and 17 years old. Both nature (i.e.,
genes) and nurture (e.g., nutrition, medications, and medical
conditions) can influence height.
Because rates of physical development vary so widely among teenagers,
puberty can be a source of pride or embarrassment. Early maturing boys
tend to be stronger, taller, and more athletic than their later maturing
peers. They are usually more popular, confident, and independent, but
they are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual
activity (Flannery, Rowe, & Gulley, 1993; Kaltiala-Heino, Rimpela,
Rissanen, & Rantanen, 2001). Early maturing girls may be teased or
overtly admired, which can cause them to feel self-conscious about their
developing bodies. These girls are at a higher risk for depression,
substance abuse, and eating disorders (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001;
Graber, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Brooks-Gunn, 1997; Striegel-Moore &
Cachelin, 1999). Late blooming boys and girls (i.e., they develop more
slowly than their peers) may feel self-conscious about their lack of
physical development. Negative feelings are particularly a problem for
late maturing boys, who are at a higher risk for depression and conflict
with parents (Graber et al., 1997) and more likely to be bullied
(Pollack & Shuster, 2000).
The adolescent brain also remains under development. Up until puberty,
brain cells continue to bloom in the frontal region. Adolescents engage
in increased risk-taking behaviors and emotional outbursts possibly
because the frontal lobes of their brains are still developing
([link]). Recall that this area is
responsible for judgment, impulse control, and planning, and it is still
maturing into early adulthood (Casey, Tottenham, Liston, & Durston,
2005).
{:
#Figure_09_04_TeenBrain}
See also
According to neuroscientist Jay Giedd in the Frontline video “Inside
the Teenage Brain” (2013), “It’s sort of unfair to expect [teens] to
have adult levels of organizational skills or decision-making before
their brains are finished being built.” Watch this segment on “The
Wiring of the Adolescent
Brain” to find out more about
the developing brain during adolescence.
More complex thinking abilities emerge during adolescence. Some
researchers suggest this is due to increases in processing speed and
efficiency rather than as the result of an increase in mental
capacity—in other words, due to improvements in existing skills rather
than development of new ones (Bjorkland, 1987; Case, 1985). During
adolescence, teenagers move beyond concrete thinking and become capable
of abstract thought. Recall that Piaget refers to this stage as formal
operational thought. Teen thinking is also characterized by the ability
to consider multiple points of view, imagine hypothetical situations,
debate ideas and opinions (e.g., politics, religion, and justice), and
form new ideas ([link]). In addition, it’s
not uncommon for adolescents to question authority or challenge
established societal norms.
Cognitive empathy{: data-type=“term”}, also known as
theory-of-mind (which we discussed earlier with regard to egocentrism),
relates to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel
concern for others (Shamay-Tsoory, Tomer, & Aharon-Peretz, 2005).
Cognitive empathy begins to increase in adolescence and is an important
component of social problem solving and conflict avoidance. According to
one longitudinal study, levels of cognitive empathy begin rising in
girls around 13 years old, and around 15 years old in boys (Van der
Graaff et al., 2013). Teens who reported having supportive fathers with
whom they could discuss their worries were found to be better able to
take the perspective of others (Miklikowska, Duriez, & Soenens, 2011).
Adolescents continue to refine their sense of self as they relate to
others. Erikson referred to the task of the adolescent as one of
identity versus role confusion. Thus, in Erikson’s view, an adolescent’s
main questions are “Who am I?” and “Who do I want to be?” Some
adolescents adopt the values and roles that their parents expect for
them. Other teens develop identities that are in opposition to their
parents but align with a peer group. This is common as peer
relationships become a central focus in adolescents’ lives.
As adolescents work to form their identities, they pull away from their
parents, and the peer group becomes very important (Shanahan, McHale,
Osgood, & Crouter, 2007). Despite spending less time with their parents,
most teens report positive feelings toward them (Moore, Guzman, Hair,
Lippman, & Garrett, 2004). Warm and healthy parent-child relationships
have been associated with positive child outcomes, such as better grades
and fewer school behavior problems, in the United States as well as in
other countries (Hair et al., 2005).
It appears that most teens don’t experience adolescent storm and stress
to the degree once famously suggested by G. Stanley Hall, a pioneer in
the study of adolescent development. Only small numbers of teens have
major conflicts with their parents (Steinberg & Morris, 2001), and most
disagreements are minor. For example, in a study of over 1,800 parents
of adolescents from various cultural and ethnic groups, Barber (1994)
found that conflicts occurred over day-to-day issues such as homework,
money, curfews, clothing, chores, and friends. These types of arguments
tend to decrease as teens develop (Galambos & Almeida, 1992).
The next stage of development is emerging adulthood{:
data-type=“term”}. This is a relatively newly defined period of lifespan
development spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as
an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and
love.
When does a person become an adult? There are many ways to answer this
question. In the United States, you are legally considered an adult at
18 years old. But other definitions of adulthood vary widely; in
sociology, for example, a person may be considered an adult when she
becomes self-supporting, chooses a career, gets married, or starts a
family. The ages at which we achieve these milestones vary from person
to person as well as from culture to culture. For example, in the
African country of Malawi, 15-year-old Njemile was married at 14 years
old and had her first child at 15 years old. In her culture she is
considered an adult. Children in Malawi take on adult responsibilities
such as marriage and work (e.g., carrying water, tending babies, and
working fields) as early as 10 years old. In stark contrast,
independence in Western cultures is taking longer and longer,
effectively delaying the onset of adult life.
Why is it taking twentysomethings so long to grow up? It seems that
emerging adulthood is a product of both Western culture and our current
times (Arnett, 2000). People in developed countries are living longer,
allowing the freedom to take an extra decade to start a career and
family. Changes in the workforce also play a role. For example, 50 years
ago, a young adult with a high school diploma could immediately enter
the work force and climb the corporate ladder. That is no longer the
case. Bachelor’s and even graduate degrees are required more and more
often—even for entry-level jobs (Arnett, 2000). In addition, many
students are taking longer (five or six years) to complete a college
degree as a result of working and going to school at the same time.
After graduation, many young adults return to the family home because
they have difficulty finding a job. Changing cultural expectations may
be the most important reason for the delay in entering adult roles.
Young people are spending more time exploring their options, so they are
delaying marriage and work as they change majors and jobs multiple
times, putting them on a much later timetable than their parents
(Arnett, 2000).
By the time we reach early adulthood (20 to early 40s), our physical
maturation is complete, although our height and weight may increase
slightly. In young adulthood, our physical abilities are at their peak,
including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac
functioning. Most professional athletes are at the top of their game
during this stage. Many women have children in the young adulthood
years, so they may see additional weight gain and breast changes.
Middle adulthood extends from the 40s to the 60s
([link]). Physical decline is gradual. The
skin loses some elasticity, and wrinkles are among the first signs of
aging. Visual acuity decreases during this time. Women experience a
gradual decline in fertility as they approach the onset of menopause,
the end of the menstrual cycle, around 50 years old. Both men and women
tend to gain weight: in the abdominal area for men and in the hips and
thighs for women. Hair begins to thin and turn gray.
{:
#Figure_09_04_Exercise}
Late adulthood is considered to extend from the 60s on. This is the last
stage of physical change. The skin continues to lose elasticity,
reaction time slows further, and muscle strength diminishes. Smell,
taste, hearing, and vision, so sharp in our twenties, decline
significantly. The brain may also no longer function at optimal levels,
leading to problems like memory loss, dementia, and Alzheimer’s disease
in later years.
See also
Aging doesn’t mean a person can’t explore new pursuits, learn new
skills, and continue to grow. Watch this inspiring story about Neil
Unger who is a newbie to the world
of skateboarding at 60 years old.
Because we spend so many years in adulthood (more than any other stage),
cognitive changes are numerous. In fact, research suggests that adult
cognitive development is a complex, ever changing process that may be
even more active than cognitive development in infancy and early
childhood (Fischer, Yan, & Stewart, 2003).
See also
There is good news for the middle age brain. View this brief
video to find out what it is.
Unlike our physical abilities, which peak in our mid-20s and then begin
a slow decline, our cognitive abilities remain steady throughout early
and middle adulthood. Our crystalized intelligence (information, skills,
and strategies we have gathered through a lifetime of experience) tends
to hold steady as we age—it may even improve. For example, adults show
relatively stable to increasing scores on intelligence tests until their
mid-30s to mid-50s (Bayley & Oden, 1955). However, in late adulthood we
begin to experience a decline in another area of our cognitive
abilities—fluid intelligence (information processing abilities,
reasoning, and memory). These processes become slower. How can we delay
the onset of cognitive decline? Mental and physical activity seems to
play a part ([link]). Research has found
adults who engage in mentally and physically stimulating activities
experience less cognitive decline and have a reduced incidence of mild
cognitive impairment and dementia (Hertzog, Kramer, Wilson, &
Lindenberger, 2009; Larson et al., 2006; Podewils et al., 2005).
There are many theories about the social and emotional aspects of aging.
Some aspects of healthy aging include activities, social connectedness,
and the role of a person’s culture. According to many theorists,
including George Vaillant (2002), who studied and analyzed over 50 years
of data, we need to have and continue to find meaning throughout our
lives. For those in early and middle adulthood, meaning is found through
work (Sterns & Huyck, 2001) and family life (Markus, Ryff, Curan, &
Palmersheim, 2004). These areas relate to the tasks that Erikson
referred to as generativity and intimacy. As mentioned previously,
adults tend to define themselves by what they do—their careers. Earnings
peak during this time, yet job satisfaction is more closely tied to work
that involves contact with other people, is interesting, provides
opportunities for advancement, and allows some independence (Mohr &
Zoghi, 2006) than it is to salary (Iyengar, Wells, & Schwartz, 2006).
How might being unemployed or being in a dead-end job challenge adult
well-being?
Positive relationships with significant others in our adult years have
been found to contribute to a state of well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2009).
Most adults in the United States identify themselves through their
relationships with family—particularly with spouses, children, and
parents (Markus et al., 2004). While raising children can be stressful,
especially when they are young, research suggests that parents reap the
rewards down the road, as adult children tend to have a positive effect
on parental well-being (Umberson, Pudrovska, & Reczek, 2010). Having a
stable marriage has also been found to contribute to well-being
throughout adulthood (Vaillant, 2002).
Another aspect of positive aging is believed to be social connectedness
and social support. As we get older, socioemotional selectivity
theory{: data-type=“term”} suggests that our social support and
friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not more close
than in our earlier years (Carstensen, 1992)
([link]).
{: #Figure_09_04_Support}
See also
To learn more, view this video
on aging in America.
At conception the egg and sperm cell are united to form a zygote, which
will begin to divide rapidly. This marks the beginning of the first
stage of prenatal development (germinal stage), which lasts about two
weeks. Then the zygote implants itself into the lining of the woman’s
uterus, marking the beginning of the second stage of prenatal
development (embryonic stage), which lasts about six weeks. The embryo
begins to develop body and organ structures, and the neural tube forms,
which will later become the brain and spinal cord. The third phase of
prenatal development (fetal stage) begins at 9 weeks and lasts until
birth. The body, brain, and organs grow rapidly during this stage.
During all stages of pregnancy it is important that the mother receive
prenatal care to reduce health risks to herself and to her developing
baby.
Newborn infants weigh about 7.5 pounds. Doctors assess a newborn’s
reflexes, such as the sucking, rooting, and Moro reflexes. Our physical,
cognitive, and psychosocial skills grow and change as we move through
developmental stages from infancy through late adulthood. Attachment in
infancy is a critical component of healthy development. Parenting styles
have been found to have an effect on childhood outcomes of well-being.
The transition from adolescence to adulthood can be challenging due to
the timing of puberty, and due to the extended amount of time spent in
emerging adulthood. Although physical decline begins in middle
adulthood, cognitive decline does not begin until later. Activities that
keep the body and mind active can help maintain good physical and
cognitive health as we age. Social supports through family and friends
remain important as we age.
Question
Which of the following is the correct order of prenatal
development?
zygote, fetus, embryo
fetus, embryo zygote
fetus, zygote, embryo
zygote, embryo, fetus {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop
is known as ________.
critical period
mitosis
conception
pregnancy {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
What begins as a single-cell structure that is created when a
sperm and egg merge at conception?
embryo
fetus
zygote
infant {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Using scissors to cut out paper shapes is an example of ________.
gross motor skills
fine motor skills
large motor skills
small motor skills {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The child uses the parent as a base from which to explore her
world in which attachment style?
secure
insecure avoidant
insecure ambivalent-resistant
disorganized {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
The frontal lobes become fully developed ________.
What are some known teratogens, and what kind of damage can they
do to the developing fetus?
Explanation
Alcohol is a teratogen. Excessive drinking can cause mental
retardation in children. The child can also have a small head and
abnormal facial features, which are characteristic of fetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS). Another teratogen is nicotine. Smoking
while pregnant can lead to low-birth weight, premature birth,
stillbirth, and SIDS.
Question
What is prenatal care and why is it important?
Explanation
Prenatal care is medical care during pregnancy that monitors the
health of both the mother and fetus. It’s important to receive
prenatal care because it can reduce complications to the mother
and fetus during pregnancy.
Question
Describe what happens in the embryonic stage of development.
Describe what happens in the fetal stage of development.
Explanation
In the embryonic stage, basic structures of the embryo start to
develop into areas that will become the head, chest, and abdomen.
The heart begins to beat and organs form and begin to function.
The neural tube forms along the back of the embryo, developing
into the spinal cord and brain. In the fetal stage, the brain and
body continue to develop. Fingers and toes develop along with
hearing, and internal organs form.
Question
What makes a personal quality part of someone’s personality?
Explanation
The particular quality or trait must be part of an enduring
behavior pattern, so that it is a consistent or predictable
quality.
Question
Describe some of the newborn reflexes. How might they promote
survival?
Explanation
The sucking reflex is the automatic, unlearned sucking motions
that infants do with their mouths. It may help promote survival
because this action helps the baby take in nourishment. The
rooting reflex is the newborn’s response to anything that touches
her cheek. When you stroke a baby’s cheek she will naturally turn
her head that way and begin to suck. This may aid survival because
it helps the newborn locate a source of food.
Question
Compare and contrast the four parenting styles and describe the
kinds of childhood outcomes we can expect with each.
Explanation
With the authoritative style, children are given reasonable
demands and consistent limits, warmth and affection are expressed,
the parent listens to the child’s point of view, and the child
initiates positive standards. Children raised by authoritative
parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills. Another
parenting style is authoritarian: The parent places a high value
on conformity and obedience. The parents are often strict, tightly
monitor their children, and express little warmth. This style can
create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids. The third parenting
style is permissive: Parents make few demands, rarely use
punishment, and give their children free rein. Children raised by
permissive parents tend to lack self-discipline, which contributes
to poor grades and alcohol abuse. However, they have higher
self-esteem, better social skills, and lower levels of depression.
The fourth style is the uninvolved parent: They are indifferent,
uninvolved, and sometimes called neglectful. The children raised
in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn,
fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an
increased risk of substance abuse.
Question
What is emerging adulthood and what are some factors that have
contributed to this new stage of development?
Explanation
Emerging adulthood is a relatively new period of lifespan
development from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as a
transitional time in which identity exploration focuses on work
and love. According to Arnett, changing cultural expectations
facilitate the delay to full adulthood. People are spending more
time exploring their options, so they are delaying marriage and
work as they change majors and jobs multiple times, putting them
on a much later timetable than their parents.
Which parenting style describes how you were raised? Provide an
example or two to support your answer.
Would you describe your experience of puberty as one of pride or
embarrassment? Why?
Your best friend is a smoker who just found out she is pregnant.
What would you tell her about smoking and pregnancy?
Imagine you are a nurse working at a clinic that provides prenatal
care for pregnant women. Your patient, Anna, has heard that it’s a
good idea to play music for her unborn baby, and she wants to know
when her baby’s hearing will develop. What will you tell her?
newly defined period of lifespan development from 18 years old to
the mid-20s; young people are taking longer to complete college,
get a job, get married, and start a family ^
parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as
neglectful; they don’t respond to the child’s needs and make
relatively few demands ^
structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins
as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and
placenta
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Discuss hospice
care * Describe the five stages of grief * Define living will and
DNR
Every story has an ending. Death marks the end of your life story
([link]). Our culture and individual
backgrounds influence how we view death. In some cultures, death is
accepted as a natural part of life and is embraced. In contrast, until
about 50 years ago in the United States, a doctor might not inform
someone that they were dying, and the majority of deaths occurred in
hospitals. In 1967 that reality began to change with Cicely Saunders,
who created the first modern hospice{: data-type=“term”} in
England. The aim of hospice is to help provide a death with dignity and
pain management in a humane and comfortable environment, which is
usually outside of a hospital setting. In 1974, Florence Wald founded
the first hospice in the United States. Today, hospice provides care for
1.65 million Americans and their families. Because of hospice care, many
terminally ill people are able to spend their last days at home.
{: #Figure_09_05_Cemetery}
Research has indicated that hospice care is beneficial for the patient
(Brumley, Enquidanos, & Cherin, 2003; Brumley et al., 2007; Godkin,
Krant, & Doster, 1984) and for the patient’s family (Rhodes, Mitchell,
Miller, Connor, & Teno, 2008; Godkin et al., 1984). Hospice patients
report high levels of satisfaction with hospice care because they are
able to remain at home and are not completely dependent on strangers for
care (Brumley et al., 2007). In addition, hospice patients tend to live
longer than non-hospice patients (Connor, Pyenson, Fitch, Spence, &
Iwasaki, 2007; Temel et al., 2010). Family members receive emotional
support and are regularly informed of their loved one’s treatment and
condition. The family member’s burden of care is also reduced (McMillan
et al., 2006). Both the patient and the patient’s family members report
increased family support, increased social support, and improved coping
while receiving hospice services (Godkin et al., 1984).
How do you think you might react if you were diagnosed with a terminal
illness like cancer? Elizabeth Kübler-Ross (1969), who worked with the
founders of hospice care, described the process of an individual
accepting his own death. She proposed five stages of grief: denial,
anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. Most individuals
experience these stages, but the stages may occur in different orders,
depending on the individual. In addition, not all people experience all
of the stages. It is also important to note that some psychologists
believe that the more a dying person fights death, the more likely he is
to remain stuck in the denial phase. This could make it difficult for
the dying person to face death with dignity. However, other
psychologists believe that not facing death until the very end is an
adaptive coping mechanism for some people.
Whether due to illness or old age, not everyone facing death or the loss
of a loved one experiences the negative emotions outlined in the
Kübler-Ross model (Nolen-Hoeksema & Larson, 1999). For example, research
suggests that people with religious or spiritual beliefs are better able
to cope with death because of their hope in an afterlife and because of
social support from religious or spiritual associations (Hood, Spilka,
Hunsberger, & Corsuch, 1996; McIntosh, Silver, & Wortman, 1993;
Paloutzian, 1996; Samarel, 1991; Wortman & Park, 2008).
A prominent example of a person creating meaning through death is Randy
Pausch, who was a well-loved and respected professor at Carnegie Mellon
University. Diagnosed with terminal pancreatic cancer in his mid-40s and
given only 3–6 months to live, Pausch focused on living in a fulfilling
way in the time he had left. Instead of becoming angry and depressed, he
presented his now famous last lecture called “Really Achieving Your
Childhood Dreams.” In his moving, yet humorous talk, he shares his
insights on seeing the good in others, overcoming obstacles, and
experiencing zero gravity, among many other things. Despite his terminal
diagnosis, Pausch lived the final year of his life with joy and hope,
showing us that our plans for the future still matter, even if we know
that we are dying.
Death marks the endpoint of our lifespan. There are many ways that we
might react when facing death. Kübler-Ross developed a five-stage model
of grief as a way to explain this process. Many people facing death
choose hospice care, which allows their last days to be spent at home in
a comfortable, supportive environment.
Question
Who created the very first modern hospice?
Elizabeth Kübler-Ross
Cicely Saunders
Florence Wald
Florence Nightingale {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which of the following is the order of stages in Kübler-Ross’s
five-stage model of grief?
Describe the five stages of grief and provide examples of how a
person might react in each stage.
The first stage is denial. The person receives news that he is
dying, and either does not take it seriously or tries to escape
from the reality of the situation. He might say something like,
“Cancer could never happen to me. I take good care of myself. This
has to be a mistake.” The next stage is anger. He realizes time is
short, and he may not have a chance to accomplish what he wanted
in life. “It’s not fair. I promised my grandchildren that we would
go to Disney World, and now I’ll never have the chance to take
them.” The third stage is bargaining. In this stage, he tries to
delay the inevitable by bargaining or pleading for extra time,
usually with God, family members, or medical care providers. “God,
just give me one more year so I can take that trip with my
grandchildren. They’re too young to understand what’s happening
and why I can’t take them.” The fourth stage is depression. He
becomes sad about his impending death. “I can’t believe this is
how I’m going to die. I’m in so much pain. What’s going to become
of my family when I’m gone?” The final stage is acceptance. This
stage is usually reached in the last few days or weeks before
death. He recognizes that death is inevitable. “I need to get
everything in order and say all of my good-byes to the people I
love.”
What is the purpose of hospice care?
Hospice is a program of services that provide medical, social, and
spiritual support for dying people and their families.
Have you ever had to cope with the loss of a loved one? If so,
what concepts described in this section provide context that may
help you understand your experience and process of grieving?
If you were diagnosed with a terminal illness would you choose
hospice care or a traditional death in a hospital? Why?
service that provides a death with dignity; pain management in a
humane and comfortable environment; usually outside of a hospital
setting
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
What makes us behave as we do? What drives us to eat? What drives us
toward sex? Is there a biological basis to explain the feelings we
experience? How universal are emotions?
In this chapter, we will explore issues relating to both motivation and
emotion. We will begin with a discussion of several theories that have
been proposed to explain motivation and why we engage in a given
behavior. You will learn about the physiological needs that drive some
human behaviors, as well as the importance of our social experiences in
influencing our actions.
Next, we will consider both eating and having sex as examples of
motivated behaviors. What are the physiological mechanisms of hunger and
satiety? What understanding do scientists have of why obesity occurs,
and what treatments exist for obesity and eating disorders? How has
research into human sex and sexuality evolved over the past century? How
do psychologists understand and study the human experience of sexual
orientation and gender identity? These questions—and more—will be
explored.
This chapter will close with a discussion of emotion. You will learn
about several theories that have been proposed to explain how emotion
occurs, the biological underpinnings of emotion, and the universality of
emotions.
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation * Understand that instincts, drive
reduction, self-efficacy, and social motives have all been proposed
as theories of motivation * Explain the basic concepts associated
with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Why do we do the things we do? What motivations underlie our behaviors?
Motivation{: data-type=“term”} describes the wants or needs that
direct behavior toward a goal. In addition to biological motives,
motivations can be intrinsic{: data-type=“term”} (arising from
internal factors) or extrinsic{: data-type=“term”} (arising from
external factors) ([link]). Intrinsically
motivated behaviors are performed because of the sense of personal
satisfaction that they bring, while extrinsically motivated behaviors
are performed in order to receive something from others.
{: #Figure_10_01_Motivation}
Think about why you are currently in college. Are you here because you
enjoy learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more
well-rounded individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated.
However, if you are here because you want to get a college degree to
make yourself more marketable for a high-paying career or to satisfy the
demands of your parents, then your motivation is more extrinsic in
nature.
In reality, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and
extrinsic factors, but the nature of the mix of these factors might
change over time (often in ways that seem counter-intuitive). There is
an old adage: “Choose a job that you love, and you will never have to
work a day in your life,” meaning that if you enjoy your occupation,
work doesn’t seem like … well, work. Some research suggests that
this isn’t necessarily the case (Daniel & Esser, 1980; Deci, 1972; Deci,
Koestner, & Ryan, 1999). According to this research, receiving some sort
of extrinsic reinforcement (i.e., getting paid) for engaging in
behaviors that we enjoy leads to those behaviors being thought of as
work no longer providing that same enjoyment. As a result, we might
spend less time engaging in these reclassified behaviors in the absence
of any extrinsic reinforcement. For example, Odessa loves baking, so in
her free time, she bakes for fun. Oftentimes, after stocking shelves at
her grocery store job, she often whips up pastries in the evenings
because she enjoys baking. When a coworker in the store’s bakery
department leaves his job, Odessa applies for his position and gets
transferred to the bakery department. Although she enjoys what she does
in her new job, after a few months, she no longer has much desire to
concoct tasty treats in her free time. Baking has become work in a way
that changes her motivation to do it
([link]). What Odessa has experienced is
called the overjustification effect—intrinsic motivation is diminished
when extrinsic motivation is given. This can lead to extinguishing the
intrinsic motivation and creating a dependence on extrinsic rewards for
continued performance (Deci et al., 1999).
{: #Figure_10_01_Bakery}
Other studies suggest that intrinsic motivation may not be so vulnerable
to the effects of extrinsic reinforcements, and in fact, reinforcements
such as verbal praise might actually increase intrinsic motivation
(Arnold, 1976; Cameron & Pierce, 1994). In that case, Odessa’s
motivation to bake in her free time might remain high if, for example,
customers regularly compliment her baking or cake decorating skills.
These apparent discrepancies in the researchers’ findings may be
understood by considering several factors. For one, physical
reinforcement (such as money) and verbal reinforcement (such as praise)
may affect an individual in very different ways. In fact, tangible
rewards (i.e., money) tend to have more negative effects on intrinsic
motivation than do intangible rewards (i.e., praise). Furthermore, the
expectation of the extrinsic motivator by an individual is crucial: If
the person expects to receive an extrinsic reward, then intrinsic
motivation for the task tends to be reduced. If, however, there is no
such expectation, and the extrinsic motivation is presented as a
surprise, then intrinsic motivation for the task tends to persist (Deci
et al., 1999).
In educational settings, students are more likely to experience
intrinsic motivation to learn when they feel a sense of belonging and
respect in the classroom. This internalization can be enhanced if the
evaluative aspects of the classroom are de-emphasized and if students
feel that they exercise some control over the learning environment.
Furthermore, providing students with activities that are challenging,
yet doable, along with a rationale for engaging in various learning
activities can enhance intrinsic motivation for those tasks (Niemiec &
Ryan, 2009). Consider Hakim, a first-year law student with two courses
this semester: Family Law and Criminal Law. The Family Law professor has
a rather intimidating classroom: He likes to put students on the spot
with tough questions, which often leaves students feeling belittled or
embarrassed. Grades are based exclusively on quizzes and exams, and the
instructor posts results of each test on the classroom door. In
contrast, the Criminal Law professor facilitates classroom discussions
and respectful debates in small groups. The majority of the course grade
is not exam-based, but centers on a student-designed research project on
a crime issue of the student’s choice. Research suggests that Hakim will
be less intrinsically motivated in his Family Law course, where students
are intimidated in the classroom setting, and there is an emphasis on
teacher-driven evaluations. Hakim is likely to experience a higher level
of intrinsic motivation in his Criminal Law course, where the class
setting encourages inclusive collaboration and a respect for ideas, and
where students have more influence over their learning activities.
William Jamespastehere (1842–1910) was an
important contributor to early research into motivation, and he is often
referred to as the father of psychology in the United States. James
theorized that behavior was driven by a number of instincts, which aid
survival ([link]). From a biological
perspective, an instinct{: data-type=“term”} is a species-specific
pattern of behavior that is not learned. There was, however,
considerable controversy among James and his contemporaries over the
exact definition of instinct. James proposed several dozen special human
instincts, but many of his contemporaries had their own lists that
differed. A mother’s protection of her baby, the urge to lick sugar, and
hunting prey were among the human behaviors proposed as true instincts
during James’s era. This view—that human behavior is driven by
instincts—received a fair amount of criticism because of the undeniable
role of learning in shaping all sorts of human behavior. In fact, as
early as the 1900s, some instinctive behaviors were experimentally
demonstrated to result from associative learning (recall when you
learned about Watson’s conditioning of fear response in “Little Albert”)
(Faris, 1921).
{: #Figure_10_01_WilliamJ}
Another early theory of motivation proposed that the maintenance of
homeostasis is particularly important in directing behavior. You may
recall from your earlier reading that homeostasis is the tendency to
maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a biological system. In a
body system, a control center (which is often part of the brain)
receives input from receptors (which are often complexes of neurons).
The control center directs effectors (which may be other neurons) to
correct any imbalance detected by the control center.
According to the drive theory{: data-type=“term”} of motivation,
deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs. These needs
result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the
need and, ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis. For example,
if it’s been a while since you ate, your blood sugar levels will drop
below normal. This low blood sugar will induce a physiological need and
a corresponding drive state (i.e., hunger) that will direct you to seek
out and consume food ([link]). Eating will
eliminate the hunger, and, ultimately, your blood sugar levels will
return to normal. Interestingly, drive theory also emphasizes the role
that habits play in the type of behavioral response in which we engage.
A habit{: data-type=“term”} is a pattern of behavior in which we
regularly engage. Once we have engaged in a behavior that successfully
reduces a drive, we are more likely to engage in that behavior whenever
faced with that drive in the future (Graham & Weiner, 1996).
{: #Figure_10_01_Eating}
Extensions of drive theory take into account levels of arousal as
potential motivators. As you recall from your study of learning, these
theories assert that there is an optimal level of arousal that we all
try to maintain ([link]). If we are
underaroused, we become bored and will seek out some sort of
stimulation. On the other hand, if we are overaroused, we will engage in
behaviors to reduce our arousal (Berlyne, 1960). Most students have
experienced this need to maintain optimal levels of arousal over the
course of their academic career. Think about how much stress students
experience toward the end of spring semester. They feel overwhelmed with
seemingly endless exams, papers, and major assignments that must be
completed on time. They probably yearn for the rest and relaxation that
awaits them over the extended summer break. However, once they finish
the semester, it doesn’t take too long before they begin to feel bored.
Generally, by the time the next semester is beginning in the fall, many
students are quite happy to return to school. This is an example of how
arousal theory works.
{: #Figure_10_01_Arousal}
So what is the optimal level of arousal? What level leads to the best
performance? Research shows that moderate arousal is generally best;
when arousal is very high or very low, performance tends to suffer
(Yerkes & Dodson, 1908). Think of your arousal level regarding taking an
exam for this class. If your level is very low, such as boredom and
apathy, your performance will likely suffer. Similarly, a very high
level, such as extreme anxiety, can be paralyzing and hinder
performance. Consider the example of a softball team facing a
tournament. They are favored to win their first game by a large margin,
so they go into the game with a lower level of arousal and get beat by a
less skilled team.
But optimal arousal level is more complex than a simple answer that the
middle level is always best. Researchers Robert Yerkes (pronounced
“Yerk-EES”) and John Dodson discovered that the optimal arousal level
depends on the complexity and difficulty of the task to be performed
([link]). This relationship is known as
Yerkes-Dodson law{: data-type=“term”}, which holds that a simple
task is performed best when arousal levels are relatively high and
complex tasks are best performed when arousal levels are lower.
Self-efficacy{: data-type=“term”} is an individual’s belief in her
own capability to complete a task, which may include a previous
successful completion of the exact task or a similar task. Albert
Bandurapastehere (1994) theorized that an
individual’s sense of self-efficacy plays a pivotal role in motivating
behavior. Bandura argues that motivation derives from expectations that
we have about the consequences of our behaviors, and ultimately, it is
the appreciation of our capacity to engage in a given behavior that will
determine what we do and the future goals that we set for ourselves. For
example, if you have a sincere belief in your ability to achieve at the
highest level, you are more likely to take on challenging tasks and to
not let setbacks dissuade you from seeing the task through to the end.
A number of theorists have focused their research on understanding
social motives (McAdams & Constantian, 1983; McClelland & Liberman,
1949; Murray et al., 1938). Among the motives they describe are needs
for achievement, affiliation, and intimacy. It is the need for
achievement that drives accomplishment and performance. The need for
affiliation encourages positive interactions with others, and the need
for intimacy causes us to seek deep, meaningful relationships. Henry
Murray et al. (1938) categorized these needs into domains. For example,
the need for achievement and recognition falls under the domain of
ambition. Dominance and aggression were recognized as needs under the
domain of human power, and play was a recognized need in the domain of
interpersonal affection.
While the theories of motivation described earlier relate to basic
biological drives, individual characteristics, or social contexts,
Abraham Maslowpastehere (1943) proposed a
hierarchy of needs{: data-type=“term”} that spans the spectrum of
motives ranging from the biological to the individual to the social.
These needs are often depicted as a pyramid
([link]).
{: #Figure_10_01_Maslow}
At the base of the pyramid are all of the physiological needs that are
necessary for survival. These are followed by basic needs for security
and safety, the need to be loved and to have a sense of belonging, and
the need to have self-worth and confidence. The top tier of the pyramid
is self-actualization, which is a need that essentially equates to
achieving one’s full potential, and it can only be realized when needs
lower on the pyramid have been met. To Maslow and humanistic theorists,
self-actualization reflects the humanistic emphasis on positive aspects
of human nature. Maslow suggested that this is an ongoing, life-long
process and that only a small percentage of people actually achieve a
self-actualized state (Francis & Kritsonis, 2006; Maslow, 1943).
According to Maslow (1943), one must satisfy lower-level needs before
addressing those needs that occur higher in the pyramid. So, for
example, if someone is struggling to find enough food to meet his
nutritional requirements, it is quite unlikely that he would spend an
inordinate amount of time thinking about whether others viewed him as a
good person or not. Instead, all of his energies would be geared toward
finding something to eat. However, it should be pointed out that
Maslow’s theory has been criticized for its subjective nature and its
inability to account for phenomena that occur in the real world
(Leonard, 1982). Other research has more recently addressed that late in
life, Maslow proposed a self-transcendence level above
self-actualization—to represent striving for meaning and purpose beyond
the concerns of oneself (Koltko-Rivera, 2006). For example, people
sometimes make self-sacrifices in order to make a political statement or
in an attempt to improve the conditions of others. Mohandas K. Gandhi, a
world-renowned advocate for independence through nonviolent protest, on
several occasions went on hunger strikes to protest a particular
situation. People may starve themselves or otherwise put themselves in
danger displaying higher-level motives beyond their own needs.
See also
Check out this interactive
exercise that illustrates some
of the important concepts in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Motivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and/or
external factors. Multiple theories have been put forward regarding
motivation. More biologically oriented theories deal with the ways that
instincts and the need to maintain bodily homeostasis motivate behavior.
Bandura postulated that our sense of self-efficacy motivates behaviors,
and there are a number of theories that focus on a variety of social
motives. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a model that shows the
relationship among multiple motives that range from lower-level
physiological needs to the very high level of self-actualization.
Question
Need for ________ refers to maintaining positive relationships
with others.
achievement
affiliation
intimacy
power {: type=“A”}
Check Answer
B
Question
________ proposed the hierarchy of needs.
William James
David McClelland
Abraham Maslow
Albert Bandura {: type=“A”}
Check Answer
C
Question
________ is an individual’s belief in her capability to complete
some task.
physiological needs
self-esteem
self-actualization
self-efficacy {: type=“A”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Carl mows the yard of his elderly neighbor each week for $20. What
type of motivation is this?
How might someone espousing an arousal theory of motivation
explain visiting an amusement park?
The idea of optimal levels of arousal is similar to a drive theory
of motivation. Presumably, we all seek to maintain some
intermediate level of arousal. If we are underaroused, we are
bored. If we are overaroused, we experience stress. The rides at
an amusement park would provide higher arousal (however, we would
hope that these rides don’t actually pose significant threats to
personal safety that would lead to a state of panic) to push us
toward our own optimal level of arousal. Individuals at the park
would choose different rides based on their specific arousal
thresholds; for example, one person might find a simple water ride
optimally arousing and an extreme roller coaster overarousing,
while others would find the extreme roller coaster optimally
arousing.
Schools often use concrete rewards to increase adaptive behaviors.
How might this be a disadvantage for students intrinsically
motivated to learn? What are educational implications of the
potential for concrete rewards to diminish intrinsic motivation
for a given task?
We would expect to see a shift from learning for the sake of
learning to learning to earn some reward. This would undermine the
foundation upon which traditional institutions of higher education
are built. For a student motivated by extrinsic rewards,
dependence on those may pose issues later in life (post-school)
when there are not typically extrinsic rewards for learning.
deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result
in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the
need and ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis ^
simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively
high, while complex tasks are best performed when arousal is lower
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe how
hunger and eating are regulated * Differentiate between levels of
overweight and obesity and the associated health consequences *
Explain the health consequences resulting from anorexia and bulimia
nervosa
Eating is essential for survival, and it is no surprise that a drive
like hunger exists to ensure that we seek out sustenance. While this
chapter will focus primarily on the physiological mechanisms that
regulate hunger and eating, powerful social, cultural, and economic
influences also play important roles. This section will explain the
regulation of hunger, eating, and body weight, and we will discuss the
adverse consequences of disordered eating.
There are a number of physiological mechanisms that serve as the basis
for hunger. When our stomachs are empty, they contract. Typically, a
person then experiences hunger pangs. Chemical messages travel to the
brain, and serve as a signal to initiate feeding behavior. When our
blood glucose levels drop, the pancreas and liver generate a number of
chemical signals that induce hunger (Konturek et al., 2003; Novin,
Robinson, Culbreth, & Tordoff, 1985) and thus initiate feeding behavior.
For most people, once they have eaten, they feel satiation{:
data-type=“term”}, or fullness and satisfaction, and their eating
behavior stops. Like the initiation of eating, satiation is also
regulated by several physiological mechanisms. As blood glucose levels
increase, the pancreas and liver send signals to shut off hunger and
eating (Drazen & Woods, 2003; Druce, Small, & Bloom, 2004; Greary,
1990). The food’s passage through the gastrointestinal tract also
provides important satiety signals to the brain (Woods, 2004), and fat
cells release leptin, a satiety hormone.
The various hunger and satiety
signals that are involved in the regulation of eating are integrated in
the brain. Research suggests that several areas of the hypothalamus and
hindbrain are especially important sites where this integration occurs
(Ahima & Antwi, 2008; Woods & D’Alessio, 2008). Ultimately, activity in
the brain determines whether or not we engage in feeding behavior
([link]).
Our body weight is affected by a number of factors, including
gene-environment interactions, and the number of calories we consume
versus the number of calories we burn in daily activity. If our caloric
intake exceeds our caloric use, our bodies store excess energy in the
form of fat. If we consume fewer calories than we burn off, then stored
fat will be converted to energy. Our energy expenditure is obviously
affected by our levels of activity, but our body’s metabolic rate also
comes into play. A person’s metabolic rate{: data-type=“term”} is
the amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time, and
there is tremendous individual variability in our metabolic rates.
People with high rates of metabolism are able to burn off calories more
easily than those with lower rates of metabolism.
We all experience fluctuations in our weight from time to time, but
generally, most people’s weights fluctuate within a narrow margin, in
the absence of extreme changes in diet and/or physical activity. This
observation led some to propose a set-point theory of body weight
regulation. The set-point theory{: data-type=“term”} asserts that
each individual has an ideal body weight, or set point, which is
resistant to change. This set-point is genetically predetermined and
efforts to move our weight significantly from the set-point are resisted
by compensatory changes in energy intake and/or expenditure (Speakman et
al., 2011).
Some of the predictions generated from this particular theory have not
received empirical support. For example, there are no changes in
metabolic rate between individuals who had recently lost significant
amounts of weight and a control group (Weinsier et al., 2000). In
addition, the set-point theory fails to account for the influence of
social and environmental factors in the regulation of body weight
(Martin-Gronert & Ozanne, 2013; Speakman et al., 2011). Despite these
limitations, set-point theory is still often used as a simple, intuitive
explanation of how body weight is regulated.
When someone weighs more than what is generally accepted as healthy for
a given height, they are considered overweight or obese. According to
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), an adult with a
**:term:`body mass index` (BMI) between 25
and 29.9 is considered **overweight{: data-type=“term”}
([link]). An adult with a BMI{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} of 30 or higher is considered
obese{: data-type=“term”} (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention [CDC], 2012). People who are so overweight that they are at
risk for death are classified as morbidly obese. Morbid obesity{:
data-type=“term”} is defined as having a BMI over 40. Note that although
BMI has been used as a healthy weight indicator by the World Health
Organization (WHO), the CDC, and other groups, its value as an
assessment tool has been questioned. The BMI is most useful for studying
populations, which is the work of these organizations. It is less useful
in assessing an individual since height and weight measurements fail to
account for important factors like fitness level. An athlete, for
example, may have a high BMI because the tool doesn’t distinguish
between the body’s percentage of fat and muscle in a person’s weight.
{:
#Figure_10_02_BodyMass}
Being extremely overweight or obese is a risk factor for several
negative health consequences. These include, but are not limited to, an
increased risk for cardiovascular disease, stroke, Type 2 diabetes,
liver disease, sleep apnea, colon cancer, breast cancer, infertility,
and arthritis. Given that it is estimated that in the United States
around one-third of the adult population is obese and that nearly
two-thirds of adults and one in six children qualify as overweight (CDC,
2012), there is substantial interest in trying to understand how to
combat this important public health concern.
What causes someone to be overweight or obese? You have already read
that both genes and environment are important factors for determining
body weight, and if more calories are consumed than expended, excess
energy is stored as fat. However, socioeconomic status and the physical
environment must also be considered as contributing factors (CDC, 2012).
For example, an individual who lives in an impoverished neighborhood
that is overrun with crime may never feel comfortable walking or biking
to work or to the local market. This might limit the amount of physical
activity in which he engages and result in an increased body weight.
Similarly, some people may not be able to afford healthy food options
from their market, or these options may be unavailable (especially in
urban areas or poorer neighborhoods); therefore, some people rely
primarily on available, inexpensive, high fat, and high calorie fast
food as their primary source of nutrition.
Generally, overweight and obese individuals are encouraged to try to
reduce their weights through a combination of both diet and exercise.
While some people are very successful with these approaches, many
struggle to lose excess weight. In cases in which a person has had no
success with repeated attempts to reduce weight or is at risk for death
because of obesity, bariatric surgery may be recommended. Bariatric
surgery{: data-type=“term”} is a type of surgery specifically aimed
at weight reduction, and it involves modifying the gastrointestinal
system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting
how much of the digested food can be absorbed
([link]) (Mayo Clinic, 2013). A recent
meta-analysis suggests that bariatric surgery is more effective than
non-surgical treatment for obesity in the two-years immediately
following the procedure, but to date, no long-term studies yet exist
(Gloy et al., 2013).
{: #Figure_10_02_Bariatric}
See also
Watch this video that
describes two different types of bariatric surgeries.
Tip
psychology dig-deeper
Prader-Willi Syndrome
Prader-Willi Syndrome (PWS) is
a genetic disorder that results in persistent feelings of intense
hunger and reduced rates of metabolism. Typically, affected children
have to be supervised around the clock to ensure that they do not
engage in excessive eating. Currently, PWS is the leading genetic
cause of morbid obesity in children, and it is associated with a
number of cognitive deficits and emotional problems
([link]).
{:
#Figure_10_02_Obesity}
While genetic testing can be used to make a diagnosis, there are a
number of behavioral diagnostic criteria associated with PWS. From
birth to 2 years of age, lack of muscle tone and poor sucking
behavior may serve as early signs of PWS. Developmental delays are
seen between the ages of 6 and 12, and excessive eating and cognitive
deficits associated with PWS usually onset a little later.
While the exact mechanisms of PWS are not fully understood, there is
evidence that affected individuals have hypothalamic abnormalities.
This is not surprising, given the hypothalamus’s role in regulating
hunger and eating. However, as you will learn in the next section of
this chapter, the hypothalamus is also involved in the regulation of
sexual behavior. Consequently, many individuals suffering from PWS
fail to reach sexual maturity during adolescence.
There is no current treatment or cure for PWS. However, if weight can
be controlled in these individuals, then their life expectancies are
significantly increased (historically, sufferers of PWS often died in
adolescence or early adulthood). Advances in the use of various
psychoactive medications and growth hormones continue to enhance the
quality of life for individuals with PWS (Cassidy & Driscoll, 2009;
Prader-Willi Syndrome Association, 2012).
While nearly two out of three US adults struggle with issues related to
being overweight, a smaller, but significant, portion of the population
has eating disorders that typically result in being normal weight or
underweight. Often, these individuals are fearful of gaining weight.
Individuals who suffer from bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa face
many adverse health consequences (Mayo Clinic, 2012a, 2012b).
People suffering from bulimia nervosa{: data-type=“term”} engage
in binge eating behavior that is followed by an attempt to compensate
for the large amount of food consumed. Purging the food by inducing
vomiting or through the use of laxatives are two common compensatory
behaviors. Some affected individuals engage in excessive amounts of
exercise to compensate for their binges. Bulimia is associated with many
adverse health consequences that can include kidney failure, heart
failure, and tooth decay. In addition, these individuals often suffer
from anxiety and depression, and they are at an increased risk for
substance abuse (Mayo Clinic, 2012b). The lifetime prevalence rate for
bulimia nervosa is estimated at around 1% for women and less than 0.5%
for men (Smink, van Hoeken, & Hoek, 2012).
As of the 2013 release of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, fifth
edition, Binge eating disorder{: data-type=“term”} is a disorder
recognized by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Unlike with
bulimia, eating binges are not followed by inappropriate behavior, such
as purging, but they are followed by distress, including feelings of
guilt and embarrassment. The resulting psychological distress
distinguishes binge eating disorder from overeating (American
Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013).
Anorexia nervosa{: data-type=“term”} is an eating disorder
characterized by the maintenance of a body weight well below average
through starvation and/or excessive exercise. Individuals suffering from
anorexia nervosa often have a distorted body image{:
data-type=“term”}, referenced in literature as a type of body
dysmorphia, meaning that they view themselves as overweight even though
they are not. Like bulimia nervosa, anorexia nervosa is associated with
a number of significant negative health outcomes: bone loss, heart
failure, kidney failure, amenorrhea (cessation of the menstrual period),
reduced function of the gonads, and in extreme cases, death.
Furthermore, there is an increased risk for a number of psychological
problems, which include anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and substance
abuse (Mayo Clinic, 2012a). Estimates of the prevalence of anorexia
nervosa vary from study to study but generally range from just under one
percent to just over four percent in women. Generally, prevalence rates
are considerably lower for men (Smink et al., 2012).
See also
Watch this news story about an
Italian advertising campaign to raise public awareness of anorexia
nervosa.
While both anorexia and bulimia nervosa occur in men and women of many
different cultures, Caucasian females from Western societies tend to be
the most at-risk population. Recent research indicates that females
between the ages of 15 and 19 are most at risk, and it has long been
suspected that these eating disorders are culturally-bound phenomena
that are related to messages of a thin ideal often portrayed in popular
media and the fashion world ([link]) (Smink et
al., 2012). While social factors play an important role in the
development of eating disorders, there is also evidence that genetic
factors may predispose people to these disorders (Collier & Treasure,
2004).
Hunger and satiety are highly regulated processes that result in a
person maintaining a fairly stable weight that is resistant to change.
When more calories are consumed than expended, a person will store
excess energy as fat. Being significantly overweight adds substantially
to a person’s health risks and problems, including cardiovascular
disease, type 2 diabetes, certain cancers, and other medical issues.
Sociocultural factors that emphasize thinness as a beauty ideal and a
genetic predisposition contribute to the development of eating disorders
in many young females, though eating disorders span ages and genders.
Question
According to your reading, nearly ________ of the adult
population in the United States can be classified as obese.
one half
one third
one fourth
one fifth {: type=“A”}
Question
________ is a chemical messenger secreted by fat cells that acts
as an appetite suppressant.
orexin
angiotensin
leptin
ghrelin {: type=“A”}
Question
________ is characterized by episodes of binge eating followed
by attempts to compensate for the excessive amount of food that
was consumed.
Prader-Willi syndrome
morbid obesity
anorexia nervosa
bulimia nervosa {: type=“A”}
Question
In order to be classified as morbidly obese, an adult must have a
BMI of ________.
The index that is often used to classify people as being
underweight, normal weight, overweight, obese, or morbidly obese
is called BMI. Given that BMI is calculated solely on weight and
height, how could it be misleading?
Using BMI as a sole metric can actually be misleading because
people who have large amounts of lean muscle mass can actually be
characterized as being overweight or obese based on their height
and weight. Weight versus height is a somewhat crude measurement
as it doesn’t distinguish the amount of body weight that comes
from lean versus fatty tissue.
As indicated in this section, Caucasian women from industrialized,
Western cultures tend to be at the highest risk for eating
disorders like anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Why might this be?
These disorders are closely associated with sociocultural emphasis
on a thin-ideal that is often portrayed in media. Given that
non-Caucasians are under-represented in popular media in the West
and that the thin-ideal is more heavily emphasized for women, this
particular group is most vulnerable.
Think about popular television programs on the air right now. What
do the women in these programs look like? What do the men look
like? What kinds of messages do you think the media is sending
about men and women in our society?
type of surgery that modifies the gastrointestinal system to
reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting how
much of the digested food can be absorbed ^
assertion that each individual has an ideal body weight, or set
point, that is resistant to change
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Understand basic
biological mechanisms regulating sexual behavior and motivation *
Appreciate the importance of Alfred Kinsey’s research on human
sexuality * Recognize the contributions that William Masters and
Virginia Johnson’s research made to our understanding of the sexual
response cycle * Define sexual orientation and gender identity
Like food, sex is an important part of our lives. From an evolutionary
perspective, the reason is obvious—perpetuation of the species. Sexual
behavior in humans, however, involves much more than reproduction. This
section provides an overview of research that has been conducted on
human sexual behavior and motivation. This section will close with a
discussion of issues related to gender and sexual orientation.
Much of what we know about the physiological mechanisms that underlie
sexual behavior and motivation comes from animal research. As you’ve
learned, the hypothalamus plays an important role in motivated
behaviors, and sex is no exception. In fact, lesions to an area of the
hypothalamus called the medial preoptic area completely disrupt a male
rat’s ability to engage in sexual behavior. Surprisingly, medial
preoptic lesions do not change how hard a male rat is willing to work to
gain access to a sexually receptive female
([link]). This suggests that the ability to
engage in sexual behavior and the motivation to do so may be mediated by
neural systems distinct from one another.
{: #Figure_10_03_Rats}
Animal research suggests that limbic system structures such as the
amygdala and nucleus accumbens are especially important for sexual
motivation. Damage to these areas results in a decreased motivation to
engage in sexual behavior, while leaving the ability to do so intact
([link]) (Everett, 1990). Similar
dissociations of sexual motivation and sexual ability have also been
observed in the female rat (Becker, Rudick, & Jenkins, 2001; Jenkins &
Becker, 2001).
{:
#Figure_10_03_SexBrain}
Although human sexual behavior is much more complex than that seen in
rats, some parallels between animals and humans can be drawn from this
research. The worldwide popularity of drugs used to treat erectile
dysfunction (Conrad, 2005) speaks to the fact that sexual motivation and
the ability to engage in sexual behavior can also be dissociated in
humans. Moreover, disorders that involve abnormal hypothalamic function
are often associated with hypogonadism (reduced function of the gonads)
and reduced sexual function (e.g., Prader-Willi syndrome). Given the
hypothalamus’s role in endocrine function, it is not surprising that
hormones secreted by the endocrine system also play important roles in
sexual motivation and behavior. For example, many animals show no sign
of sexual motivation in the absence of the appropriate combination of
sex hormones from their gonads. While this is not the case for humans,
there is considerable evidence that sexual motivation for both men and
women varies as a function of circulating testosterone levels (Bhasin,
Enzlin, Coviello, & Basson, 2007; Carter, 1992; Sherwin, 1988).
Before the late 1940s, access to reliable, empirically-based information
on sex was limited. Physicians were considered authorities on all issues
related to sex, despite the fact that they had little to no training in
these issues, and it is likely that most of what people knew about sex
had been learned either through their own experiences or by talking with
their peers. Convinced that people would benefit from a more open
dialogue on issues related to human sexuality, Dr. Alfred Kinsey{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} of Indiana University initiated
large-scale survey research on the topic
([link]). The results of some of these
efforts were published in two books—Sexual Behavior in the Human Male
and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female—which were published in 1948
and 1953, respectively (Bullough, 1998).
{:
#Figure_10_03_Kinsey}
At the time, the Kinsey reports were quite sensational. Never before had
the American public seen its private sexual behavior become the focus of
scientific scrutiny on such a large scale. The books, which were filled
with statistics and scientific lingo, sold remarkably well to the
general public, and people began to engage in open conversations about
human sexuality. As you might imagine, not everyone was happy that this
information was being published. In fact, these books were banned in
some countries. Ultimately, the controversy resulted in Kinsey losing
funding that he had secured from the Rockefeller Foundation to continue
his research efforts (Bancroft, 2004).
Although Kinsey’s research has been widely criticized as being riddled
with sampling and statistical errors (Jenkins, 2010), there is little
doubt that this research was very influential in shaping future research
on human sexual behavior and motivation. Kinsey described a remarkably
diverse range of sexual behaviors and experiences reported by the
volunteers participating in his research. Behaviors that had once been
considered exceedingly rare or problematic were demonstrated to be much
more common and innocuous than previously imagined (Bancroft, 2004;
Bullough, 1998).
See also
Watch this trailer from the 2004
film Kinsey that depicts Alfred Kinsey’s life and research.
Among the results of Kinsey’s research were the findings that women are
as interested and experienced in sex as their male counterparts, that
both males and females masturbate without adverse health consequences,
and that homosexual acts are fairly common (Bancroft, 2004). Kinsey also
developed a continuum known as the Kinsey scale that is still commonly
used today to categorize an individual’s sexual orientation (Jenkins,
2010). Sexual orientation{: data-type=“term”} is an individual’s
emotional and erotic attractions to same-sexed individuals
(homosexual{: data-type=“term”}), opposite-sexed individuals
(heterosexual{: data-type=“term”}), or both (bisexual{:
data-type=“term”}).
In 1966, William Masterspastehere and
Virginia Johnsonpastehere published a book
detailing the results of their observations of nearly 700 people who
agreed to participate in their study of physiological responses during
sexual behavior. Unlike Kinsey, who used personal interviews and surveys
to collect data, Masters and Johnson observed people having intercourse
in a variety of positions, and they observed people masturbating,
manually or with the aid of a device. While this was occurring,
researchers recorded measurements of physiological variables, such as
blood pressure and respiration rate, as well as measurements of sexual
arousal, such as vaginal lubrication and penile tumescence (swelling
associated with an erection). In total, Masters and Johnson observed
nearly 10,000 sexual acts as a part of their research (Hock, 2008).
Based on these observations, Masters and Johnson divided the sexual
response cycle{: data-type=“term”} into four phases that are fairly
similar in men and women: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
([link]). The excitement{:
data-type=“term”} phase is the arousal phase of the sexual response
cycle, and it is marked by erection of the penis or clitoris and
lubrication and expansion of the vaginal canal. During plateau{:
data-type=“term”}, women experience further swelling of the vagina and
increased blood flow to the labia minora, and men experience full
erection and often exhibit pre-ejaculatory fluid. Both men and women
experience increases in muscle tone during this time. Orgasm{:
data-type=“term”} is marked in women by rhythmic contractions of the
pelvis and uterus along with increased muscle tension. In men, pelvic
contractions are accompanied by a buildup of seminal fluid near the
urethra that is ultimately forced out by contractions of genital
muscles, (i.e., ejaculation). Resolution{: data-type=“term”} is
the relatively rapid return to an unaroused state accompanied by a
decrease in blood pressure and muscular relaxation. While many women can
quickly repeat the sexual response cycle, men must pass through a longer
refractory period as part of resolution. The refractory period{:
data-type=“term”} is a period of time that follows an orgasm during
which an individual is incapable of experiencing another orgasm. In men,
the duration of the refractory period can vary dramatically from
individual to individual with some refractory periods as short as
several minutes and others as long as a day. As men age, their
refractory periods tend to span longer periods of time.
{: #Figure_10_03_SexReponse}
In addition to the insights that their research provided with regards to
the sexual response cycle and the multi-orgasmic potential of women,
Masters and Johnson also collected important information about
reproductive anatomy. Their research demonstrated the oft-cited
statistic of the average size of a flaccid and an erect penis (3 and 6
inches, respectively) as well as dispelling long-held beliefs about
relationships between the size of a man’s erect penis and his ability to
provide sexual pleasure to his female partner. Furthermore, they
determined that the vagina is a very elastic structure that can conform
to penises of various sizes (Hock, 2008).
As mentioned earlier, a person’s sexual orientation is their emotional
and erotic attraction toward another individual
([link]). While the majority of people
identify as heterosexual, there is a sizable population of people within
the United States who identify as either homosexual or bisexual.
Research suggests that somewhere between 3% and 10% of the population
identifies as homosexual (Kinsey, Pomeroy, & Martin, 1948; LeVay, 1996;
Pillard & Bailey, 1995).
{:
#Figure_10_03_GayMales}
Issues of sexual orientation have long fascinated scientists interested
in determining what causes one individual to be heterosexual while
another is homosexual. For many years, people believed that these
differences arose because of different socialization and familial
experiences. However, research has consistently demonstrated that the
family backgrounds and experiences are very similar among heterosexuals
and homosexuals (Bell, Weinberg, & Hammersmith, 1981; Ross & Arrindell,
1988).
Genetic and biological mechanisms have also been proposed, and the
balance of research evidence suggests that sexual orientation has an
underlying biological component. For instance, over the past 25 years,
research has demonstrated gene-level contributions to sexual orientation
(Bailey & Pillard, 1991; Hamer, Hu, Magnuson, Hu, & Pattatucci, 1993;
Rodriguez-Larralde & Paradisi, 2009), with some researchers estimating
that genes account for at least half of the variability seen in human
sexual orientation (Pillard & Bailey, 1998). Other studies report
differences in brain structure and function between heterosexuals and
homosexuals (Allen & Gorski, 1992; Byne et al., 2001; Hu et al., 2008;
LeVay, 1991; Ponseti et al., 2006; Rahman & Wilson, 2003a; Swaab &
Hofman, 1990), and even differences in basic body structure and function
have been observed (Hall & Kimura, 1994; Lippa, 2003; Loehlin &
McFadden, 2003; McFadden & Champlin, 2000; McFadden & Pasanen, 1998;
Rahman & Wilson, 2003b). In aggregate, the data suggest that to a
significant extent, sexual orientations are something with which we are
born.
Regardless of how sexual orientation is determined, research has made
clear that sexual orientation is not a choice, but rather it is a
relatively stable characteristic of a person that cannot be changed.
Claims of successful gay conversion therapy have received wide criticism
from the research community due to significant concerns with research
design, recruitment of experimental participants, and interpretation of
data. As such, there is no credible scientific evidence to suggest that
individuals can change their sexual orientation (Jenkins, 2010).
Dr. Robert Spitzer, the author of one of the most widely-cited examples
of successful conversion therapy, apologized to both the scientific
community and the gay community for his mistakes, and he publically
recanted his own paper in a public letter addressed to the editor of
Archives of Sexual Behavior in the spring of 2012 (Carey, 2012). In this
letter, Spitzer wrote,
I was considering writing something that would acknowledge that I now
judge the major critiques of the study as largely correct… . I
believe I owe the gay community an apology for my study making
unproven claims of the efficacy of reparative therapy. I also
apologize to any gay person who wasted time or energy undergoing some
form of reparative therapy because they believed that I had proven
that reparative therapy works with some “highly motivated”
individuals. (Becker, 2012, pars. 2, 5)
Citing research that suggests not only that gay conversion therapy is
ineffective, but also potentially harmful, legislative efforts to make
such therapy illegal have either been enacted (e.g., it is now illegal
in California) or are underway across the United States, and many
professional organizations have issued statements against this practice
(Human Rights Campaign, n.d.)
Many people conflate sexual orientation with gender identity because of
stereotypical attitudes that exist about homosexuality. In reality,
these are two related, but different, issues. Gender identity{:
data-type=“term”} refers to one’s sense of being male or female.
Generally, our gender identities correspond to our chromosomal and
phenotypic sex, but this is not always the case. When individuals do not
feel comfortable identifying with the gender associated with their
biological sex, then they experience gender dysphoria. Gender
dysphoria{: data-type=“term”} is a diagnostic category in the fifth
edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) that describes individuals who do not identify as the gender
that most people would assume they are. This dysphoria must persist for
at least six months and result in significant distress or dysfunction to
meet DSM-5 diagnostic criteria. In order for children to be assigned
this diagnostic category, they must verbalize their desire to become the
other gender.
Many people who are classified as gender dysphoric seek to live their
lives in ways that are consistent with their own gender identity. This
involves dressing in opposite-sex clothing and assuming an opposite-sex
identity. These individuals may also undertake transgender hormone
therapy{: data-type=“term”} in an attempt to make their bodies look
more like the opposite sex, and in some cases, they elect to have
surgeries to alter the appearance of their external genitalia to
resemble that of their gender identity
([link]). While these may sound like
drastic changes, gender dysphoric individuals take these steps because
their bodies seem to them to be a mistake of nature, and they seek to
correct this mistake.
{: #Figure_10_03_Transgend}
See also
Hear firsthand about the transgender experience and the disconnect
that occurs when one’s self-identity is betrayed by one’s body. In
this brief video, Chaz Bono
discusses the difficulties of growing up identifying as male, while
living in a female body.
Issues related to sexual orientation and gender identity are very much
influenced by sociocultural factors. Even the ways in which we define
sexual orientation and gender vary from one culture to the next. While
in the United States exclusive heterosexuality is viewed as the norm,
there are societies that have different attitudes regarding homosexual
behavior. In fact, in some instances, periods of exclusively homosexual
behavior are socially prescribed as a part of normal development and
maturation. For example, in parts of New Guinea, young boys are expected
to engage in sexual behavior with other boys for a given period of time
because it is believed that doing so is necessary for these boys to
become men (Baldwin & Baldwin, 1989).
There is a two-gendered culture in the United States. We tend to
classify an individual as either male or female. However, in some
cultures there are additional gender variants resulting in more than two
gender categories. For example, in Thailand, you can be male, female, or
kathoey. A kathoey is an individual who would be described as intersexed
or transgendered in the United States (Tangmunkongvorakul, Banwell,
Carmichael, Utomo, & Sleigh, 2010).
Tip
The Case of David Reimer
In August of 1965, Janet and Ronald Reimer of Winnipeg, Canada,
welcomed the birth of their twin sons, Bruce and Brian. Within a few
months, the twins were experiencing urinary problems; doctors
recommended the problems could be alleviated by having the boys
circumcised. A malfunction of the medical equipment used to perform
the circumcision resulted in Bruce’s penis being irreparably damaged.
Distraught, Janet and Ronald looked to expert advice on what to do
with their baby boy. By happenstance, the couple became aware of
Dr. John Money at Johns Hopkins University and his theory of
psychosexual neutrality (Colapinto, 2000).
Dr. Money had spent a considerable amount of time researching
transgendered individuals and individuals born with ambiguous
genitalia. As a result of this work, he developed a theory of
psychosexual neutrality. His theory asserted that we are essentially
neutral at birth with regard to our gender identity and that we don’t
assume a concrete gender identity until we begin to master language.
Furthermore, Dr. Money believed that the way in which we are
socialized in early life is ultimately much more important than our
biology in determining our gender identity (Money, 1962).
Dr. Money encouraged Janet and Ronald to bring the twins to Johns
Hopkins University, and he convinced them that they should raise
Bruce as a girl. Left with few other options at the time, Janet and
Ronald agreed to have Bruce’s testicles removed and to raise him as a
girl. When they returned home to Canada, they brought with them Brian
and his “sister,” Brenda, along with specific instructions to never
reveal to Brenda that she had been born a boy (Colapinto, 2000).
Early on, Dr. Money shared with the scientific community the great
success of this natural experiment that seemed to fully support his
theory of psychosexual neutrality (Money, 1975). Indeed, in early
interviews with the children it appeared that Brenda was a typical
little girl who liked to play with “girly” toys and do “girly”
things.
However, Dr. Money was less than forthcoming with information that
seemed to argue against the success of the case. In reality, Brenda’s
parents were constantly concerned that their little girl wasn’t
really behaving as most girls did, and by the time Brenda was nearing
adolescence, it was painfully obvious to the family that she was
really having a hard time identifying as a female. In addition,
Brenda was becoming increasingly reluctant to continue her visits
with Dr. Money to the point that she threatened suicide if her
parents made her go back to see him again.
At that point, Janet and Ronald disclosed the true nature of Brenda’s
early childhood to their daughter. While initially shocked, Brenda
reported that things made sense to her now, and ultimately, by the
time she was an adolescent, Brenda had decided to identify as a male.
Thus, she became David Reimer.
David was quite comfortable in his masculine role. He made new
friends and began to think about his future. Although his castration
had left him infertile, he still wanted to be a father. In 1990,
David married a single mother and loved his new role as a husband and
father. In 1997, David was made aware that Dr. Money was continuing
to publicize his case as a success supporting his theory of
psychosexual neutrality. This prompted David and his brother to go
public with their experiences in attempt to discredit the doctor’s
publications. While this revelation created a firestorm in the
scientific community for Dr. Money, it also triggered a series of
unfortunate events that ultimately led to David committing suicide in
2004 (O’Connell, 2004).
This sad story speaks to the complexities involved in gender
identity. While the Reimer case had earlier been paraded as a
hallmark of how socialization trumped biology in terms of gender
identity, the truth of the story made the scientific and medical
communities more cautious in dealing with cases that involve intersex
children and how to deal with their unique circumstances. In fact,
stories like this one have prompted measures to prevent unnecessary
harm and suffering to children who might have issues with gender
identity. For example, in 2013, a law took effect in Germany allowing
parents of intersex children to classify their children as
indeterminate so that children can self-assign the appropriate gender
once they have fully developed their own gender identities
(Paramaguru, 2013).
See also
Watch this news story about the
experiences of David Reimer and his family.
The hypothalamus and structures of the limbic system are important in
sexual behavior and motivation. There is evidence to suggest that our
motivation to engage in sexual behavior and our ability to do so are
related, but separate, processes. Alfred Kinsey conducted large-scale
survey research that demonstrated the incredible diversity of human
sexuality. William Masters and Virginia Johnson observed individuals
engaging in sexual behavior in developing their concept of the sexual
response cycle. While often confused, sexual orientation and gender
identity are related, but distinct, concepts.
Question
Animal research suggests that in male rats the ________ is
critical for the ability to engage in sexual behavior, but not for
the motivation to do so.
nucleus accumbens
amygdala
medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus
hippocampus {: type=“A”}
Check Answer
C
Question
During the ________ phase of the sexual response cycle,
individuals experience rhythmic contractions of the pelvis that
are accompanied by uterine contractions in women and ejaculation
in men.
excitement
plateau
orgasm
resolution {: type=“A”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Which of the following findings was not a result of the Kinsey
study?
Sexual desire and sexual ability can be separate functions.
Females enjoy sex as much as males.
Homosexual behavior is fairly common.
Masturbation has no adverse consequences. {: type=“A”}
Check Answer
A
Question
If someone is uncomfortable identifying with the gender normally
associated with their biological sex, then he could be classified
as experiencing ________.
While much research has been conducted on how an individual
develops a given sexual orientation, many people question the
validity of this research citing that the participants used may
not be representative. Why do you think this might be a legitimate
concern?
Given the stigma associated with being non-heterosexual,
participants who openly identify as homosexual or bisexual in
research projects may not be entirely representative of the
non-heterosexual population as a whole.
There is no reliable scientific evidence that gay conversion
therapy actually works. What kinds of evidence would you need to
see in order to be convinced by someone arguing that she had
successfully converted her sexual orientation?
Answers will vary, but it should be indicated that something more
than self-reports of successful conversion would be necessary to
support such a claim. Longitudinal, objective demonstrations of a
real switch in both erotic attraction and the actual behavior in
which the individual engaged would need to be presented in
addition to assurances that this type of therapy was safe.
Issues related to sexual orientation have been at the forefront of
the current political landscape. What do you think about current
debates on legalizing same-sex marriage?
use of hormones to make one’s body look more like the opposite-sex
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
As we move through our daily lives, we experience a variety of emotions.
An emotion is a subjective state of being that
we often describe as our feelings. The words emotion and mood are
sometimes used interchangeably, but psychologists use these words to
refer to two different things. Typically, the word emotion indicates a
subjective, affective state that is relatively intense and that occurs
in response to something we experience
([link]). Emotions are often thought to be
consciously experienced and intentional. Mood, on the other hand,
refers to a prolonged, less intense,
affective state that does not occur in response to something we
experience. Mood states may not be consciously recognized and do not
carry the intentionality that is associated with emotion (Beedie, Terry,
Lane, & Devonport, 2011). Here we will focus on emotion, and you will
learn more about mood in the chapter that covers psychological
disorders.
{: #Figure_10_04_HappySad}
This section will outline
some of the most well-known theories explaining our emotional experience
and provide insight into the biological bases of emotion. This section
closes with a discussion of the ubiquitous nature of facial expressions
of emotion and our abilities to recognize those expressions in others.
We can be at the heights of joy or in the depths of despair. We might
feel angry when we are betrayed, fear when we are threatened, and
surprised when something unexpected happens. Human emotions come in
a plethora of flavours. Irrespective of whether an emotion is pleasant or
distressing, each has has an roles important role in our life.
Hint
Imagine, what could happen if we never felt sad? How could we protect
the people and the things we care in our life? What if we never feared anything?
Although there are many distinct definitions of happiness, it is frequently
said to involve joyful feelings and a sense of fulfilment in one’s life.
The emotions of joy, satisfaction, contentment, and fulfilment are indicators of happiness.
A low mood its, opposite spectrum, is the core symptom of depression.
Hedonia refers to the pleasurable experience, for example the pleasure of eating a
meal or of sexual activity. Euphoria refers to intense feelings of pleasure, well-being and happiness and it occurs in mania.
Anhedonia, which refers to the total lack of pleasure, is the other core symptom of depression.
Fear is an intense emotional response to threat or danger. It is associated with a strong physiological response
characterised by sympathetic stimulation. Abnormal fear occurs in specific phobic disorder. Worry , the central symptom of generalized anxiety is a state of mental distress or agitation due to concern about an
impending or anticipated event, threat, or danger.
Irritability refers to an emotional state characterised by increased readiness for anger.
Children
or adolescents with depression may not experience the other core symptoms of depression
but instead present with irritable mood. It may also occur
Our emotional states are combinations of physiological arousal,
psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences. Together, these are
known as the components of emotion. These
appraisals are informed by our experiences, backgrounds, and cultures.
Therefore, different people may have different emotional experiences
even when faced with similar circumstances. Over time, several different
theories of emotion, shown in [link], have
been proposed to explain how the various components of emotion interact
with one another.
The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that
emotions arise from physiological arousal. Recall what you have learned
about the sympathetic nervous system and our fight or flight response
when threatened. If you were to encounter some threat in your
environment, like a venomous snake in your backyard, your sympathetic
nervous system would initiate significant physiological arousal, which
would make your heart race and increase your respiration rate. According
to the James-Lange theory of emotion, you would only experience a
feeling of fear after this physiological arousal had taken place.
Furthermore, different arousal patterns would be associated with
different feelings.
Other theorists, however, doubted that the physiological arousal that
occurs with different types of emotions is distinct enough to result in
the wide variety of emotions that we experience. Thus, the Cannon-Bard
theory of emotion was developed. According to
this view, physiological arousal and emotional experience occur
simultaneously, yet independently (Lang, 1994). So, when you see the
venomous snake, you feel fear at exactly the same time that your body
mounts its fight or flight response. This emotional reaction would be
separate and independent of the physiological arousal, even though they
co-occur.
The James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories have each garnered some
empirical support in various research paradigms. For instance, Chwalisz,
Diener, and Gallagher (1988) conducted a study of the emotional
experiences of people who had spinal cord injuries. They reported that
individuals who were incapable of receiving autonomic feedback because
of their injuries still experienced emotion; however, there was a
tendency for people with less awareness of autonomic arousal to
experience less intense emotions. More recently, research investigating
the facial feedback hypothesis suggested that suppression of facial
expression of emotion lowered the intensity of some emotions experienced
by participants (Davis, Senghas, & Ochsner, 2009). In both of these
examples, neither theory is fully supported because physiological
arousal does not seem to be necessary for the emotional experience, but
this arousal does appear to be involved in enhancing the intensity of
the emotional experience.
The Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of
emotion is another variation on theories of emotions that takes into
account both physiological arousal and the emotional experience.
According to this theory, emotions are composed of two factors:
physiological and cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is
interpreted in context to produce the emotional experience. In
revisiting our example involving the venomous snake in your backyard,
the two-factor theory maintains that the snake elicits sympathetic
nervous system activation that is labeled as fear given the context, and
our experience is that of fear.
{: #Figure_10_04_Theories}
It is important to point out that Schachter and Singer believed that
physiological arousal is very similar across the different types of
emotions that we experience, and therefore, the cognitive appraisal of
the situation is critical to the actual emotion experienced. In fact, it
might be possible to misattribute arousal to an emotional experience if
the circumstances were right (Schachter & Singer, 1962).
To test their idea, Schachter and Singer performed a clever experiment.
Male participants were randomly assigned to one of several groups. Some
of the participants received injections of epinephrine that caused
bodily changes that mimicked the fight-or-flight response of the
sympathetic nervous system; however, only some of these men were told to
expect these reactions as side effects of the injection. The other men
that received injections of epinephrine were told either that the
injection would have no side effects or that it would result in a side
effect unrelated to a sympathetic response, such as itching feet or
headache. After receiving these injections, participants waited in a
room with someone else they thought was another subject in the research
project. In reality, the other person was a confederate of the
researcher. The confederate engaged in scripted displays of euphoric or
angry behavior (Schachter & Singer, 1962).
When those subjects who were told that they should expect to feel
symptoms of physiological arousal were asked about any emotional changes
that they had experienced related to either euphoria or anger (depending
on how their confederate behaved), they reported none. However, the men
who weren’t expecting physiological arousal as a function of the
injection were more likely to report that they experienced euphoria or
anger as a function of their assigned confederate’s behavior. While
everyone that received an injection of epinephrine experienced the same
physiological arousal, only those who were not expecting the arousal
used context to interpret the arousal as a change in emotional state
(Schachter & Singer, 1962).
Strong emotional responses are associated with strong physiological
arousal. This has led some to suggest that the signs of physiological
arousal, which include increased heart rate, respiration rate, and
sweating, might serve as a tool to determine whether someone is telling
the truth or not. The assumption is that most of us would show signs of
physiological arousal if we were being dishonest with someone. A
polygraph, or lie detector test, measures the
physiological arousal of an individual responding to a series of
questions. Someone trained in reading these tests would look for answers
to questions that are associated with increased levels of arousal as
potential signs that the respondent may have been dishonest on those
answers. While polygraphs are still commonly used, their validity and
accuracy are highly questionable because there is no evidence that lying
is associated with any particular pattern of physiological arousal (Saxe
& Ben-Shakhar, 1999).
The relationship between our experiencing of emotions and our cognitive
processing of them, and the order in which these occur, remains a topic
of research and debate. Lazarus (1991) developed the
cognitive-mediational theory that asserts our
emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus. This appraisal
mediates between the stimulus and the emotional response, and it is
immediate and often unconscious. In contrast to the Schachter-Singer
model, the appraisal precedes a cognitive label. You will learn more
about Lazarus’s appraisal concept when you study stress, health, and
lifestyle.
Two other prominent views arise from the work of Robert Zajonc and
Joseph LeDoux. Zajonc asserted that some emotions occur separately from
or prior to our cognitive interpretation of them, such as feeling fear
in response to an unexpected loud sound (Zajonc, 1998). He also believed
in what we might casually refer to as a gut feeling—that we can
experience an instantaneous and unexplainable like or dislike for
someone or something (Zajonc, 1980). LeDoux also views some emotions as
requiring no cognition: some emotions completely bypass contextual
interpretation. His research into the neuroscience of emotion has
demonstrated the amygdala’s primary role in fear (Cunha, Monfils, &
LeDoux, 2010; LeDoux 1996, 2002). A fear stimulus is processed by the
brain through one of two paths: from the thalamus (where it is
perceived) directly to the amygdala or from the thalamus through the
cortex and then to the amygdala. The first path is quick, while the
second enables more processing about details of the stimulus. In the
following section, we will look more closely at the neuroscience of
emotional response.
Earlier, you learned about the limbic system, which is the area of the brain involved in emotion and
memory ([link]). The limbic system includes
the hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, and the hippocampus. The
hypothalamus plays a role in the activation of the sympathetic nervous
system that is a part of any given emotional reaction. The thalamus
serves as a sensory relay center whose neurons project to both the
amygdala and the higher cortical regions for further processing. The
amygdala plays a role in processing emotional information and sending
that information on to cortical structures (Fossati, 2012).The
hippocampus integrates emotional experience with cognition (Femenía,
Gómez-Galán, Lindskog, & Magara, 2012).
{:
#Figure_10_04_Limbic}
See also
Work through this Open Colleges interactive 3D brain
simulator for a refresher on the
brain’s parts and their functions. To begin, click the “Start
Exploring” button. To access the limbic system, click the plus sign
in the right-hand menu (set of three tabs).
The amygdala has received a great
deal of attention from researchers interested in understanding the
biological basis for emotions, especially fear and anxiety (Blackford &
Pine, 2012; Goosens & Maren, 2002; Maren, Phan, & Liberzon, 2013). The
amygdala is composed of various subnuclei, including the basolateral
complex and the central nucleus ([link]).
The basolateral complex has dense connections
with a variety of sensory areas of the brain. It is critical for
classical conditioning and for attaching emotional value to learning
processes and memory. The central nucleus
plays a role in attention, and it has connections with the hypothalamus
and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and
endocrine systems’ activity (Pessoa, 2010).
{:
#Figure_10_04_Amygdala}
Animal research has demonstrated that there is increased activation of
the amygdala in rat pups that have odour cues paired with electrical
shock when their mother is absent. This leads to an aversion to the odour
cue that suggests the rats learned to fear the odour cue. Interestingly,
when the mother was present, the rats actually showed a preference for
the odour cue despite its association with an electrical shock. This
preference was associated with no increases in amygdala activation. This
suggests a differential effect on the amygdala by the context (the
presence or absence of the mother) determined whether the pups learned
to fear the odour or to be attracted to it (Moriceau & Sullivan, 2006).
Raineki, Cortés, Belnoue, and Sullivan (2012) demonstrated that, in
rats, negative early life experiences could alter the function of the
amygdala and result in adolescent patterns of behavior that mimic human
mood disorders. In this study, rat pups received either abusive or
normal treatment during postnatal days 8–12. There were two forms of
abusive treatment. The first form of abusive treatment had an
insufficient bedding condition. The mother rat had insufficient bedding
material in her cage to build a proper nest that resulted in her
spending more time away from her pups trying to construct a nest and
less times nursing her pups. The second form of abusive treatment had an
associative learning task that involved pairing odours and an electrical
stimulus in the absence of the mother, as described above. The control
group was in a cage with sufficient bedding and was left undisturbed
with their mothers during the same time period. The rat pups that
experienced abuse were much more likely to exhibit depressive-like
symptoms during adolescence when compared to controls. These
depressive-like behaviors were associated with increased activation of
the amygdala.
Human research also suggests a relationship between the amygdala and
psychological disorders of mood or anxiety. Changes in amygdala
structure and function have been demonstrated in adolescents who are
either at-risk or have been diagnosed with various mood and/or anxiety
disorders (Miguel-Hidalgo, 2013; Qin et al., 2013). It has also been
suggested that functional differences in the amygdala could serve as a
biomarker to differentiate individuals suffering from bipolar disorder
from those suffering from major depressive disorder (Fournier, Keener,
Almeida, Kronhaus, & Phillips, 2013).
As mentioned earlier, the hippocampus is also involved in emotional processing. Like the
amygdala, research has demonstrated that hippocampal structure and
function are linked to a variety of mood and anxiety disorders.
Individuals suffering from PTSD show
marked reductions in the volume of several parts of the hippocampus,
which may result from decreased levels of neurogenesis and dendritic
branching (the generation of new neurons and the generation of new
dendrites in existing neurons, respectively) (Wang et al., 2010). While
it is impossible to make a causal claim with correlational research like
this, studies have demonstrated behavioral improvements and hippocampal
volume increases following either pharmacological or
cognitive-behavioral therapy in individuals suffering from PTSD (Bremner
& Vermetten, 2004; Levy-Gigi, Szabó, Kelemen, & Kéri, 2013).
psychology link-to-learning
Watch this video:outicon:`cross-reference` about
research that demonstrates how the volume of the hippocampus can vary
as a function of traumatic experiences.
Culture can impact the way in which people display emotion.
A :term:`**cultural display rule**`is one of a collection of
culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of
displays of emotions that are acceptable (Malatesta & Haviland, 1982).
Therefore, people from varying cultural backgrounds can have very
different cultural display rules of emotion. For example, research has
shown that individuals from the United States express negative emotions
like fear, anger, and disgust both alone and in the presence of others,
while Japanese individuals only do so while alone (Matsumoto, 1990).
Furthermore, individuals from cultures that tend to emphasize social
cohesion are more likely to engage in suppression of emotional reaction
so they can evaluate which response is most appropriate in a given
context (Matsumoto, Yoo, & Nakagawa, 2008).
Other distinct cultural characteristics might be involved in
emotionality. For instance, there may be gender differences involved in
emotional processing. While research into gender differences in
emotional display is equivocal, there is some evidence that men and
women may differ in regulation of emotions (McRae, Ochsner, Mauss,
Gabrieli, & Gross, 2008).
Despite different emotional display rules, our ability to recognize and
produce facial expressions of emotion appears to be universal. In fact,
even congenitally blind individuals produce the same facial expression
of emotions, despite their never having the opportunity to observe these
facial displays of emotion in other people. This would seem to suggest
that the pattern of activity in facial muscles involved in generating
emotional expressions is universal, and indeed, this idea was suggested
in the late 19th century in Charles Darwin’s book The Expression of
Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). In fact, there is substantial
evidence for seven universal emotions that are each associated with
distinct facial expressions.
These include: happiness, surprise, sadness, fright, disgust, contempt,
and anger ([link]) (Ekman & Keltner,
1997).
{: #Figure_10_04_Expressions}
Does smiling make you happy? Or does being happy make you smile? The
facial feedback hypothesis asserts that facial
expressions are capable of influencing our emotions, meaning that
smiling can make you feel happier (Buck, 1980; Soussignan, 2001; Strack,
Martin, & Stepper, 1988). Recent research explored how Botox, which
paralyzes facial muscles and limits facial expression, might affect
emotion. Havas, Glenberg, Gutowski, Lucarelli, and Davidson (2010)
discovered that depressed individuals reported less depression after
paralysis of their frowning muscles with Botox injections.
Of course, emotion is not only displayed through facial expression. We
also use the tone of our voices, various behaviors, and body language to
communicate information about our emotional states. Body
language is the expression of emotion in terms
of body position or movement. Research suggests that we are quite
sensitive to the emotional information communicated through body
language, even if we’re not consciously aware of it (de Gelder, 2006;
Tamietto et al., 2009).
See also
psychology link-to-learning
Watch this short CNN
video about body
language to see how it plays out in the tense situation of a
political debate. To apply these same concepts to the more everyday
situations most of us face, check out these tips from an interview on
the show Today with body
language expert Janine Driver.
Autism Spectrum Disorder and Expression of Emotions
Concept Connection
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a set of neurodevelopmental
disorders characterized by repetitive behaviors and communication and
social problems. Children who have autism spectrum disorders have
difficulty recognizing the emotional states of others, and research
has shown that this may stem from an inability to distinguish various
nonverbal expressions of emotion (i.e., facial expressions) from one
another (Hobson, 1986). In addition, there is evidence to suggest
that autistic individuals also have difficulty expressing emotion
through tone of voice and by producing facial expressions (Macdonald
et al., 1989). Difficulties with emotional recognition and expression
may contribute to the impaired social interaction and communication
that characterize autism; therefore, various therapeutic approaches
have been explored to address these difficulties. Various educational
curricula, cognitive-behavioral therapies, and pharmacological
therapies have shown some promise in helping autistic individuals
process emotionally relevant information (Bauminger, 2002; Golan &
Baron-Cohen, 2006; Guastella et al., 2010).
Emotions are subjective experiences that consist of physiological
arousal and cognitive appraisal. Various theories have been put forward
to explain our emotional experiences. The James-Lange theory asserts
that emotions arise as a function of physiological arousal. The
Cannon-Bard theory maintains that emotional experience occurs
simultaneous to and independent of physiological arousal. The
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory suggests that physiological arousal
receives cognitive labels as a function of the relevant context and that
these two factors together result in an emotional experience.
The limbic system is the brain’s emotional circuit, which includes the
amygdala and the hippocampus. Both of these structures are implicated in
playing a role in normal emotional processing as well as in
psychological mood and anxiety disorders. Increased amygdala activity is
associated with learning to fear, and it is seen in individuals who are
at risk for or suffering from mood disorders. The volume of the
hippocampus has been shown to be reduced in individuals suffering from
posttraumatic stress disorder.
The ability to produce and recognize facial expressions of emotions
seems to be universal regardless of cultural background. However, there
are cultural display rules which influence how often and under what
circumstances various emotions can be expressed. Tone of voice and body
language also serve as a means by which we communicate information about
our emotional states.
Question
Individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder have been
shown to have reduced volumes of the ________.
amygdala
hippocampus
hypothalamus
thalamus {: type=“A”}
Check Answer
B
Question
According to the ________ theory of emotion, emotional
experiences arise from physiological arousal.
James-Lange
Cannon-Bard
Schachter-Singer two-factor
Darwinian {: type=“A”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Which of the following is not one of the seven universal emotions
described in this chapter?
contempt
disgust
melancholy
anger {: type=“A”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Which of the following theories of emotion would suggest that
polygraphs should be quite accurate at differentiating one emotion
from another?
Imagine you find a venomous snake crawling up your leg just after
taking a drug that prevented sympathetic nervous system
activation. What would the James-Lange theory predict about your
experience?
The James-Lange theory would predict that I would not feel fear
because I haven’t had the physiological arousal necessary to
induce that emotional state.
Why can we not make causal claims regarding the relationship
between the volume of the hippocampus and PTSD?
The research that exists is correlational in nature. It could be
the case that reduced hippocampal volume predisposes people to
develop PTSD or the decreased volume could result from PTSD.
Causal claims can only be made when performing an experiment.
Think about times in your life when you have been absolutely
elated (e.g., perhaps your school’s basketball team just won a
closely contested ballgame for the national championship) and very
fearful (e.g., you are about to give a speech in your public
speaking class to a roomful of 100 strangers). How would you
describe how your arousal manifested itself physically? Were there
marked differences in physiological arousal associated with each
emotional state?
part of the brain with dense connections with a variety of sensory
areas of the brain; it is critical for classical conditioning and
attaching emotional value to memory ^
part of the brain involved in attention and has connections with
the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the
autonomic nervous and endocrine systems’ activity ^
emotions consist of two factors: physiological and cognitive
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Three months before William Jefferson Blythe III was born, his father
died in a car accident. He was raised by his mother, Virginia Dell, and
grandparents, in Hope, Arkansas. When he turned 4, his mother married
Roger Clinton, Jr., an alcoholic who was physically abusive to William’s
mother. Six years later, Virginia gave birth to another son, Roger.
William, who later took the last name Clinton from his stepfather,
became the 42nd president of the United States. While Bill Clinton was
making his political ascendance, his half-brother, Roger Clinton, was
arrested numerous times for drug charges, including possession,
conspiracy to distribute cocaine, and driving under the influence,
serving time in jail. Two brothers, raised by the same people, took
radically different paths in their lives. Why did they make the choices
they did? What internal forces shaped their decisions? Personality
psychology can help us answer these questions and more.
Adler, A. (1930). Individual psychology. In C. Murchison (Ed.),
Psychologies of 1930 (pp. 395–405). Worcester, MA: Clark University
Press.
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This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define
personality * Describe early theories about personality development
Personality{: data-type=“term”} refers to the long-standing traits
and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and
behave in specific ways. Our personality is what makes us unique
individuals. Each person has an idiosyncratic pattern of enduring,
long-term characteristics and a manner in which he or she interacts with
other individuals and the world around them. Our personalities are
thought to be long term, stable, and not easily changed. The word
personality comes from the Latin word persona. In the ancient world,
a persona was a mask worn by an actor. While we tend to think of a mask
as being worn to conceal one’s identity, the theatrical mask was
originally used to either represent or project a specific personality
trait of a character ([link]).
The concept of personality has been studied for at least 2,000 years,
beginning with Hippocrates in 370 BCE (Fazeli, 2012). Hippocrates
theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four
separate temperaments associated with four fluids (“humors”) of the
body: choleric temperament (yellow bile from the liver), melancholic
temperament (black bile from the kidneys), sanguine temperament (red
blood from the heart), and phlegmatic temperament (white phlegm from the
lungs) (Clark & Watson, 2008; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985; Lecci &
Magnavita, 2013; Noga, 2007). Centuries later, the influential Greek
physician and philosopher Galenpastehere
built on Hippocrates’s theory, suggesting that both diseases and
personality differences could be explained by imbalances in the humors
and that each person exhibits one of the four temperaments. For example,
the choleric person is passionate, ambitious, and bold; the melancholic
person is reserved, anxious, and unhappy; the sanguine person is joyful,
eager, and optimistic; and the phlegmatic person is calm, reliable, and
thoughtful (Clark & Watson, 2008; Stelmack & Stalikas, 1991). Galen’s
theory was prevalent for over 1,000 years and continued to be popular
through the Middle Ages.
In 1780, Franz Gall, a German physician, proposed that the distances
between bumps on the skull reveal a person’s personality traits,
character, and mental abilities ([link]).
According to Gall, measuring these distances revealed the sizes of the
brain areas underneath, providing information that could be used to
determine whether a person was friendly, prideful, murderous, kind, good
with languages, and so on. Initially, phrenology was very popular;
however, it was soon discredited for lack of empirical support and has
long been relegated to the status of pseudoscience (Fancher, 1979).
{: #Figure_11_01_Phrenology}
In the centuries after Galen, other researchers contributed to the
development of his four primary temperament types, most prominently
Immanuel Kant (in the 18th century) and psychologist Wilhelm
Wundtpastehere (in the 19th century)
(Eysenck, 2009; Stelmack & Stalikas, 1991; Wundt, 1874/1886)
([link]). Kant agreed with Galen that
everyone could be sorted into one of the four temperaments and that
there was no overlap between the four categories (Eysenck, 2009). He
developed a list of traits that could be used to describe the
personality of a person from each of the four temperaments. However,
Wundt suggested that a better description of personality could be
achieved using two major axes: emotional/nonemotional and
changeable/unchangeable. The first axis separated strong from weak
emotions (the melancholic and choleric temperaments from the phlegmatic
and sanguine). The second axis divided the changeable temperaments
(choleric and sanguine) from the unchangeable ones (melancholic and
phlegmatic) (Eysenck, 2009).
{:
#Figure_11_01_FourTemper}
Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic perspective of personality was the first
comprehensive theory of personality, explaining a wide variety of both
normal and abnormal behaviors. According to Freud, unconscious drives
influenced by sex and aggression, along with childhood sexuality, are
the forces that influence our personality. Freud{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} attracted many followers who modified his
ideas to create new theories about personality. These theorists,
referred to as neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood
experiences matter, but they reduced the emphasis on sex and focused
more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality.
The perspective of personality proposed by Freud and his followers was
the dominant theory of personality for the first half of the 20th
century.
Other major theories then emerged, including the learning, humanistic,
biological, evolutionary, trait, and cultural perspectives. In this
chapter, we will explore these various perspectives on personality in
depth.
See also
View this video for a brief
overview of some of the
psychological perspectives on personality.
Personality has been studied for over 2,000 years, beginning with
Hippocrates. More recent theories of personality have been proposed,
including Freud’s psychodynamic perspective, which holds that
personality is formed through early childhood experiences. Other
perspectives then emerged in reaction to the psychodynamic perspective,
including the learning, humanistic, biological, trait, and cultural
perspectives.
Question
Personality is thought to be ________.
short term and easily changed
a pattern of short-term characteristics
unstable and short term
long term, stable and not easily changed {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to
consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways are known as
________.
psychodynamic
temperament
humors
personality {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ is credited with the first comprehensive theory of
personality.
Hippocrates
Gall
Wundt
Freud {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
An early science that tried to correlate personality with
measurements of parts of a person’s skull is known as ________.
long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to
consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
assumptions of the psychodynamic perspective on personality
development * Define and describe the nature and function of the id,
ego, and superego * Define and describe the defense mechanisms *
Define and describe the psychosexual stages of personality
development
Sigmund Freudpastehere (1856–1939) is
probably the most controversial and misunderstood psychological
theorist. When reading Freud’s theories, it is important to remember
that he was a medical doctor, not a psychologist. There was no such
thing as a degree in psychology at the time that he received his
education, which can help us understand some of the controversy over his
theories today. However, Freud was the first to systematically study and
theorize the workings of the unconscious mind in the manner that we
associate with modern psychology.
In the early years of his career, Freud worked with Josef Breuer, a
Viennese physician. During this time, Freud became intrigued by the
story of one of Breuer’s patients, Bertha Pappenheim, who was referred
to by the pseudonym Anna O. (Launer, 2005). Anna O. had been caring for
her dying father when she began to experience symptoms such as partial
paralysis, headaches, blurred vision, amnesia, and hallucinations
(Launer, 2005). In Freud’s day, these symptoms were commonly referred to
as hysteria. Anna O. turned to Breuer for help. He spent 2 years
(1880–1882) treating Anna O. and discovered that allowing her to talk
about her experiences seemed to bring some relief of her symptoms. Anna
O. called his treatment the “talking cure” (Launer, 2005). Despite the
fact the Freud never met Anna O., her story served as the basis for the
1895 book, Studies on Hysteria, which he co-authored with Breuer.
Based on Breuer’s description of Anna O.’s treatment, Freud concluded
that hysteria was the result of sexual abuse in childhood and that these
traumatic experiences had been hidden from consciousness. Breuer
disagreed with Freud, which soon ended their work together. However,
Freud continued to work to refine talk therapy and build his theory on
personality.
To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud
compared the mind to an iceberg ([link]). He
said that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious{:
data-type=“term”}, and the rest of our mind is unconscious{:
data-type=“term”}. Our unconscious refers to that mental activity of
which we are unaware and are unable to access (Freud, 1923). According
to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious
through a process called repression. For example, we sometimes say
things that we don’t intend to say by unintentionally substituting
another word for the one we meant. You’ve probably heard of a Freudian
slip, the term used to describe this. Freud suggested that slips of the
tongue are actually sexual or aggressive urges, accidentally slipping
out of our unconscious. Speech errors such as this are quite common.
Seeing them as a reflection of unconscious desires, linguists today have
found that slips of the tongue tend to occur when we are tired, nervous,
or not at our optimal level of cognitive functioning (Motley, 2002).
{: #Figure_11_02_Iceberg}
According to Freud, our personality develops from a conflict between two
forces: our biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives versus our
internal (socialized) control over these drives. Our personality is the
result of our efforts to balance these two competing forces. Freud
suggested that we can understand this by imagining three interacting
systems within our minds. He called them the id, ego, and superego
([link]).
{: #Figure_16_02_Superego}
The unconscious id{: data-type=“term”} contains our most primitive
drives or urges, and is present from birth. It directs impulses for
hunger, thirst, and sex. Freud believed that the id operates on what he
called the “pleasure principle,” in which the id seeks immediate
gratification. Through social interactions with parents and others in a
child’s environment, the ego and superego develop to help control the
id. The superego{: data-type=“term”} develops as a child interacts
with others, learning the social rules for right and wrong. The superego
acts as our conscience; it is our moral compass that tells us how we
should behave. It strives for perfection and judges our behavior,
leading to feelings of pride or—when we fall short of the ideal—feelings
of guilt. In contrast to the instinctual id and the rule-based superego,
the ego{: data-type=“term”} is the rational part of our
personality. It’s what Freud considered to be the self, and it is the
part of our personality that is seen by others. Its job is to balance
the demands of the id and superego in the context of reality; thus, it
operates on what Freud called the “reality principle.” The ego helps the
id satisfy its desires in a realistic way.
The id and superego are in constant conflict, because the id wants
instant gratification regardless of the consequences, but the superego
tells us that we must behave in socially acceptable ways. Thus, the
ego’s job is to find the middle ground. It helps satisfy the id’s
desires in a rational way that will not lead us to feelings of guilt.
According to Freud, a person who has a strong ego, which can balance the
demands of the id and the superego, has a healthy personality. Freud
maintained that imbalances in the system can lead to neurosis{:
data-type=“term”} (a tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety
disorders, or unhealthy behaviors. For example, a person who is
dominated by their id might be narcissistic and impulsive. A person with
a dominant superego might be controlled by feelings of guilt and deny
themselves even socially acceptable pleasures; conversely, if the
superego is weak or absent, a person might become a psychopath. An
overly dominant superego might be seen in an over-controlled individual
whose rational grasp on reality is so strong that they are unaware of
their emotional needs, or, in a neurotic who is overly defensive
(overusing ego defense mechanisms).
Freud believed that feelings of anxiety result from the ego’s inability
to mediate the conflict between the id and superego. When this happens,
Freud believed that the ego seeks to restore balance through various
protective measures known as defense mechanisms
([link]). When certain events, feelings, or
yearnings cause an individual anxiety, the individual wishes to reduce
that anxiety. To do that, the individual’s unconscious mind uses ego
defense mechanisms{: data-type=“term”}, unconscious protective
behaviors that aim to reduce anxiety. The ego, usually conscious,
resorts to unconscious strivings to protect the ego from being
overwhelmed by anxiety. When we use defense mechanisms, we are unaware
that we are using them. Further, they operate in various ways that
distort reality. According to Freud, we all use ego defense mechanisms.
{: #Figure_11_02_Defense}
While everyone uses defense mechanisms, Freud believed that overuse of
them may be problematic. For example, let’s say Joe Smith is a high
school football player. Deep down, Joe feels sexually attracted to
males. His conscious belief is that being gay is immoral and that if he
were gay, his family would disown him and he would be ostracized by his
peers. Therefore, there is a conflict between his conscious beliefs
(being gay is wrong and will result in being ostracized) and his
unconscious urges (attraction to males). The idea that he might be gay
causes Joe to have feelings of anxiety. How can he decrease his anxiety?
Joe may find himself acting very “macho,” making gay jokes, and picking
on a school peer who is gay. This way, Joe’s unconscious impulses are
further submerged.
There are several different types of defense mechanisms. For instance,
in repression, anxiety-causing memories from consciousness are blocked.
As an analogy, let’s say your car is making a strange noise, but because
you do not have the money to get it fixed, you just turn up the radio so
that you no longer hear the strange noise. Eventually you forget about
it. Similarly, in the human psyche, if a memory is too overwhelming to
deal with, it might be repressed{: data-type=“term”} and thus
removed from conscious awareness (Freud, 1920). This repressed memory
might cause symptoms in other areas.
Another defense mechanism is reaction formation{:
data-type=“term”}, in which someone expresses feelings, thoughts, and
behaviors opposite to their inclinations. In the above example, Joe made
fun of a homosexual peer while himself being attracted to males. In
regression{: data-type=“term”}, an individual acts much younger
than their age. For example, a four-year-old child who resents the
arrival of a newborn sibling may act like a baby and revert to drinking
out of a bottle. In projection{: data-type=“term”}, a person
refuses to acknowledge her own unconscious feelings and instead sees
those feelings in someone else. Other defense mechanisms include
rationalization{: data-type=“term”}, displacement{:
data-type=“term”}, and sublimation{: data-type=“term”}.
See also
Watch this video
for a review of Freud’s defense mechanisms.
Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood:
Childhood experiences shape our personalities as well as our behavior as
adults. He asserted that we develop via a series of stages during
childhood. Each of us must pass through these childhood stages, and if
we do not have the proper nurturing and parenting during a stage, we
will be stuck, or fixated, in that stage, even as adults.
In each psychosexual stage of development{: data-type=“term”}, the
child’s pleasure-seeking urges, coming from the id, are focused on a
different area of the body, called an erogenous zone. The stages are
oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital
([link]).
Freud’s psychosexual development theory is quite controversial. To
understand the origins of the theory, it is helpful to be familiar with
the political, social, and cultural influences of Freud’s day in Vienna
at the turn of the 20th century. During this era, a climate of sexual
repression, combined with limited understanding and education
surrounding human sexuality, heavily influenced Freud’s perspective.
Given that sex was a taboo topic, Freud assumed that negative emotional
states (neuroses) stemmed from suppression of unconscious sexual and
aggressive urges. For Freud, his own recollections and interpretations
of patients’ experiences and dreams were sufficient proof that
psychosexual stages were universal events in early childhood.
In the oral stage{: data-type=“term”} (birth to 1 year), pleasure
is focused on the mouth. Eating and the pleasure derived from sucking
(nipples, pacifiers, and thumbs) play a large part in a baby’s first
year of life. At around 1 year of age, babies are weaned from the bottle
or breast, and this process can create conflict if not handled properly
by caregivers. According to Freud, an adult who smokes, drinks,
overeats, or bites her nails is fixated in the oral stage of her
psychosexual development; she may have been weaned too early or too
late, resulting in these fixation tendencies, all of which seek to ease
anxiety.
After passing through the oral stage, children enter what Freud termed
the anal stage{: data-type=“term”} (1–3 years). In this stage,
children experience pleasure in their bowel and bladder movements, so it
makes sense that the conflict in this stage is over toilet training.
Freud suggested that success at the anal stage depended on how parents
handled toilet training. Parents who offer praise and rewards encourage
positive results and can help children feel competent. Parents who are
harsh in toilet training can cause a child to become fixated at the anal
stage, leading to the development of an anal-retentive personality. The
anal-retentive personality is stingy and stubborn, has a compulsive need
for order and neatness, and might be considered a perfectionist. If
parents are too lenient in toilet training, the child might also become
fixated and display an anal-expulsive personality. The anal-expulsive
personality is messy, careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional
outbursts.
Freud’s third stage of psychosexual development is the phallic
stage{: data-type=“term”} (3–6 years), corresponding to the age when
children become aware of their bodies and recognize the differences
between boys and girls. The erogenous zone in this stage is the
genitals. Conflict arises when the child feels a desire for the
opposite-sex parent, and jealousy and hatred toward the same-sex parent.
For boys, this is called the Oedipus complex, involving a boy’s desire
for his mother and his urge to replace his father who is seen as a rival
for the mother’s attention. At the same time, the boy is afraid his
father will punish him for his feelings, so he experiences castration
anxiety. The Oedipus complex is successfully resolved when the boy
begins to identify with his father as an indirect way to have the
mother. Failure to resolve the Oedipus complex may result in fixation
and development of a personality that might be described as vain and
overly ambitious.
Girls experience a comparable conflict in the phallic stage—the Electra
complex. The Electra complex, while often attributed to Freud, was
actually proposed by Freud’s protégé, Carl Jung (Jung & Kerenyi, 1963).
A girl desires the attention of her father and wishes to take her
mother’s place. Jung also said that girls are angry with the mother for
not providing them with a penis—hence the term penis envy. While Freud
initially embraced the Electra complex as a parallel to the Oedipus
complex, he later rejected it, yet it remains as a cornerstone of
Freudian theory, thanks in part to academics in the field (Freud,
1931/1968; Scott, 2005).
Following the phallic stage of psychosexual development is a period
known as the latency period{: data-type=“term”} (6 years to
puberty). This period is not considered a stage, because sexual feelings
are dormant as children focus on other pursuits, such as school,
friendships, hobbies, and sports. Children generally engage in
activities with peers of the same sex, which serves to consolidate a
child’s gender-role identity.
The final stage is the genital stage{: data-type=“term”} (from
puberty on). In this stage, there is a sexual reawakening as the
incestuous urges resurface. The young person redirects these urges to
other, more socially acceptable partners (who often resemble the
other-sex parent). People in this stage have mature sexual interests,
which for Freud meant a strong desire for the opposite sex. Individuals
who successfully completed the previous stages, reaching the genital
stage with no fixations, are said to be well-balanced, healthy adults.
While most of Freud’s ideas have not found support in modern research,
we cannot discount the contributions that Freud has made to the field of
psychology. It was Freud who pointed out that a large part of our mental
life is influenced by the experiences of early childhood and takes place
outside of our conscious awareness; his theories paved the way for
others.
Sigmund Freud presented the first comprehensive theory of personality.
He was also the first to recognize that much of our mental life takes
place outside of our conscious awareness. Freud also proposed three
components to our personality: the id, ego, and superego. The job of the
ego is to balance the sexual and aggressive drives of the id with the
moral ideal of the superego. Freud also said that personality develops
through a series of psychosexual stages. In each stage, pleasure focuses
on a specific erogenous zone. Failure to resolve a stage can lead one to
become fixated in that stage, leading to unhealthy personality traits.
Successful resolution of the stages leads to a healthy adult.
Question
The id operates on the ________ principle.
reality
pleasure
instant gratification
guilt {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The ego defense mechanism in which a person who is confronted with
anxiety returns to a more immature behavioral stage is called
________.
repression
regression
reaction formation
rationalization {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The Oedipus complex occurs in the ________ stage of psychosexual
development.
How might the common expression “daddy’s girl” be rooted in the
idea of the Electra complex?
Since the idea behind the Electra complex is that the daughter
competes with her same-sex parent for the attention of her
opposite-sex parent, the term “daddy’s girl” might suggest that
the daughter has an overly close relationship with her father and
a more distant—or even antagonistic—relationship with her mother.
Describe the personality of someone who is fixated at the anal
stage.
If parents are too harsh during potty training, a person could
become fixated at this stage and would be called anal retentive.
The anal-retentive personality is stingy, stubborn, has a
compulsive need for order and neatness, and might be considered a
perfectionist. On the other hand, some parents may be too soft
when it comes to potty training. In this case, Freud said that
children could also become fixated and display an anal-expulsive
personality. As an adult, an anal-expulsive personality is messy,
careless, disorganized, and prone to emotional outbursts.
mental activity of which we are unaware and unable to access
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Discuss the
concept of the inferiority complex * Discuss the core differences
between Erikson’s and Freud’s views on personality * Discuss Jung’s
ideas of the collective unconscious and archetypes * Discuss the
work of Karen Horney, including her revision of Freud’s “penis envy”
Freud attracted many followers who modified his ideas to create new
theories about personality. These theorists, referred to as
neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences
matter, but deemphasized sex, focusing more on the social environment
and effects of culture on personality. Four notable neo-Freudians
include Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung (pronounced “Yoong”), and
Karen Horney (pronounced “HORN-eye”).
Alfred Adlerpastehere, a colleague of
Freud’s and the first president of the Vienna Psychoanalytical Society
(Freud’s inner circle of colleagues), was the first major theorist to
break away from Freud ([link]). He
subsequently founded a school of psychology called individual
psychology{: data-type=“term”}, which focuses on our drive to
compensate for feelings of inferiority. Adler (1937, 1956) proposed the
concept of the inferiority complex{: data-type=“term”}. An
inferiority complex refers to a person’s feelings that they lack worth
and don’t measure up to the standards of others or of society. Adler’s
ideas about inferiority represent a major difference between his
thinking and Freud’s. Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and
aggressive urges, but Adler (1930, 1961) believed that feelings of
inferiority in childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain
superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
{: #CNX_Psych_11_03_Adler}
Adler also believed in the importance of social connections, seeing
childhood development emerging through social development rather than
the sexual stages Freud outlined. Adler noted the inter-relatedness of
humanity and the need to work together for the betterment of all. He
said, “The happiness of mankind lies in working together, in living as
if each individual had set himself the task of contributing to the
common welfare” (Adler, 1964, p. 255) with the main goal of psychology
being “to recognize the equal rights and equality of others” (Adler,
1961, p. 691).
With these ideas, Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that
all of us must experience: occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks
(friendship), and love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a
long-term relationship). Rather than focus on sexual or aggressive
motives for behavior as Freud did, Adler focused on social motives. He
also emphasized conscious rather than unconscious motivation, since he
believed that the three fundamental social tasks are explicitly known
and pursued. That is not to say that Adler did not also believe in
unconscious processes—he did—but he felt that conscious processes were
more important.
One of Adler’s major contributions to personality psychology was the
idea that our birth order shapes our personality. He proposed that older
siblings, who start out as the focus of their parents’ attention but
must share that attention once a new child joins the family, compensate
by becoming overachievers. The youngest children, according to Adler,
may be spoiled, leaving the middle child with the opportunity to
minimize the negative dynamics of the youngest and oldest children.
Despite popular attention, research has not conclusively confirmed
Adler’s hypotheses about birth order.
See also
One of Adler’s major contributions to personality psychology was the
idea that our birth order shapes our personality. Follow this
link to view a summary of birth order
theory.
As an art school dropout with an uncertain future, young Erik
Eriksonpastehere met Freud’s daughter,
Anna Freud, while he was tutoring the children of an American couple
undergoing psychoanalysis in Vienna. It was Anna Freud who encouraged
Erikson to study psychoanalysis. Erikson received his diploma from the
Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute in 1933, and as Nazism spread across
Europe, he fled the country and immigrated to the United States that
same year. As you learned when you studied lifespan development, Erikson
later proposed a psychosocial theory of development, suggesting that an
individual’s personality develops throughout the lifespan—a departure
from Freud’s view that personality is fixed in early life. In his
theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important
at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud’s
emphasis on sex. Erikson identified eight stages, each of which
represents a conflict or developmental task
([link]). The development of a healthy personality
and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each
task.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
Stage
Age (years)
Developmental Task
Description
1
0–1
Trust vs. mistrust
Trust (or mistrust) that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection,
will be met
2
1–3
Autonomy vs. shame/doubt
Sense of independence in many tasks develops
3
3–6
Initiative vs. guilt
Take initiative on some activities, may develop guilt when success not
met or boundaries overstepped
4
7–11
Industry vs. inferiority
Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent or sense of
inferiority when not
5
12–18
Identity vs. confusion
Experiment with and develop identity and roles
6
19–29
Intimacy vs. isolation
Establish intimacy and relationships with others
7
30–64
Generativity vs. stagnation
Contribute to society and be part of a family
8
65–
Integrity vs. despair
Assess and make sense of life and meaning of contributions
Carl Jungpastehere
([link]) was a Swiss psychiatrist and
protégé of Freud, who later split off from Freud and developed his own
theory, which he called analytical psychology{: data-type=“term”}.
The focus of analytical psychology is on working to balance opposing
forces of conscious and unconscious thought, and experience within one’s
personality. According to Jung, this work is a continuous learning
process—mainly occurring in the second half of life—of becoming aware of
unconscious elements and integrating them into consciousness.
{: #CNX_Psych_11_03_Jung}
Jung’s split from Freud was based on two major disagreements. First,
Jung, like Adler and Erikson, did not accept that sexual drive was the
primary motivator in a person’s mental life. Second, although Jung
agreed with Freud’s concept of a personal unconscious, he thought it to
be incomplete. In addition to the personal unconscious, Jung focused on
the collective unconscious.
The collective unconscious{: data-type=“term”} is a universal
version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory
traces, which are common to all of us (Jung, 1928). These ancestral
memories, which Jung called archetypes{: data-type=“term”}, are
represented by universal themes in various cultures, as expressed
through literature, art, and dreams (Jung). Jung said that these themes
reflect common experiences of people the world over, such as facing
death, becoming independent, and striving for mastery. Jung (1964)
believed that through biology, each person is handed down the same
themes and that the same types of symbols—such as the hero, the maiden,
the sage, and the trickster—are present in the folklore and fairy tales
of every culture. In Jung’s view, the task of integrating these
unconscious archetypal aspects of the self is part of the
self-realization process in the second half of life. With this
orientation toward self-realization, Jung parted ways with Freud’s
belief that personality is determined solely by past events and
anticipated the humanistic movement with its emphasis on
self-actualization and orientation toward the future.
Jung also proposed two attitudes or approaches toward life: extroversion
and introversion (Jung, 1923) ([link]). These
ideas are considered Jung’s most important contributions to the field of
personality psychology, as almost all models of personality now include
these concepts. If you are an extrovert, then you are a person who is
energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your
energy from being around others. If you are an introvert, then you are a
person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your
energy is derived from your inner psychic activity. Jung believed a
balance between extroversion and introversion best served the goal of
self-realization.
Introverts and Extroverts
Introvert
Extrovert
Energized by being alone
Energized by being with others
Avoids attention
Seeks attention
Speaks slowly and softly
Speaks quickly and loudly
Thinks before speaking
Thinks out loud
Stays on one topic
Jumps from topic to topic
Prefers written communication
Prefers verbal communication
Pays attention easily
Distractible
Cautious
Acts first, thinks later
Another concept proposed by Jung was the persona, which he referred to
as a mask that we adopt. According to Jung, we consciously create this
persona; however, it is derived from both our conscious experiences and
our collective unconscious. What is the purpose of the persona? Jung
believed that it is a compromise between who we really are (our true
self) and what society expects us to be. We hide those parts of
ourselves that are not aligned with society’s expectations.
See also
Jung’s view of extroverted and introverted types serves as a basis of
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). This questionnaire describes
a person’s degree of introversion versus extroversion, thinking
versus feeling, intuition versus sensation, and judging versus
perceiving. This site
provides a modified questionnaire based on the MBTI.
Are Archetypes Genetically Based?
Jung proposed that human responses to archetypes are similar to
instinctual responses in animals. One criticism of Jung is that there
is no evidence that archetypes are biologically based or similar to
animal instincts (Roesler, 2012). Jung formulated his ideas about 100
years ago, and great advances have been made in the field of genetics
since that time. We’ve found that human babies are born with certain
capacities, including the ability to acquire language. However, we’ve
also found that symbolic information (such as archetypes) is not
encoded on the genome and that babies cannot decode symbolism,
refuting the idea of a biological basis to archetypes. Rather than
being seen as purely biological, more recent research suggests that
archetypes emerge directly from our experiences and are reflections
of linguistic or cultural characteristics (Young-Eisendrath, 1995).
Today, most Jungian scholars believe that the collective unconscious
and archetypes are based on both innate and environmental influences,
with the differences being in the role and degree of each
(Sotirova-Kohli et al., 2013).
Karen Horneypastehere was one of the first
women trained as a Freudian psychoanalyst. During the Great Depression,
Horney moved from Germany to the United States, and subsequently moved
away from Freud’s teachings. Like Jung, Horney believed that each
individual has the potential for self-realization and that the goal of
psychoanalysis should be moving toward a healthy self rather than
exploring early childhood patterns of dysfunction. Horney also disagreed
with the Freudian idea that girls have penis envy and are jealous of
male biological features. According to Horney, any jealousy is most
likely culturally based, due to the greater privileges that males often
have, meaning that the differences between men’s and women’s
personalities are culturally based, not biologically based. She further
suggested that men have womb envy, because they cannot give birth.
Horney’s theories focused on the role of unconscious anxiety. She
suggested that normal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety stemming
from needs not being met, such as childhood experiences of loneliness
and/or isolation. How do children learn to handle this anxiety? Horney
suggested three styles of coping ([link]). The
first coping style, moving toward people, relies on affiliation and
dependence. These children become dependent on their parents and other
caregivers in an effort to receive attention and affection, which
provides relief from anxiety (Burger, 2008). When these children grow
up, they tend to use this same coping strategy to deal with
relationships, expressing an intense need for love and acceptance
(Burger, 2008). The second coping style, moving against people, relies
on aggression and assertiveness. Children with this coping style find
that fighting is the best way to deal with an unhappy home situation,
and they deal with their feelings of insecurity by bullying other
children (Burger, 2008). As adults, people with this coping style tend
to lash out with hurtful comments and exploit others (Burger, 2008). The
third coping style, moving away from people, centers on detachment and
isolation. These children handle their anxiety by withdrawing from the
world. They need privacy and tend to be self-sufficient. When these
children are adults, they continue to avoid such things as love and
friendship, and they also tend to gravitate toward careers that require
little interaction with others (Burger, 2008).
Horney’s Coping Styles
Coping Style
Description
Example
Moving toward people
Affiliation and dependence
Child seeking positive attention and affection from parent; adult
needing love
Moving against people
Aggression and manipulation
Child fighting or bullying other children; adult who is abrasive and
verbally hurtful, or who exploits others
Moving away from people
Detachment and isolation
Child withdrawn from the world and isolated; adult loner
Horney believed these three styles are ways in which people typically
cope with day-to-day problems; however, the three coping styles can
become neurotic strategies if they are used rigidly and compulsively,
leading a person to become alienated from others.
The neo-Freudians were psychologists whose work followed from Freud’s.
They generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but
they decreased the emphasis on sex and focused more on the social
environment and effects of culture on personality. Some of the notable
neo-Freudians are Alfred Adler, Carl Jung, Erik Erikson, and Karen
Horney. The neo-Freudian approaches have been criticized, because they
tend to be philosophical rather than based on sound scientific research.
For example, Jung’s conclusions about the existence of the collective
unconscious are based on myths, legends, dreams, and art. In addition,
as with Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the neo-Freudians based much of
their theories of personality on information from their patients.
Question
The universal bank of ideas, images, and concepts that have been
passed down through the generations from our ancestors refers to
________.
Describe the difference between extroverts and introverts in terms
of what is energizing to each.
Extroverts are energized by social engagement. Introverts are
recharged by solitary time.
Discuss Horney’s perspective on Freud’s concept of penis envy.
Horney disagreed with the Freudian idea that women had penis envy
and were jealous of a man’s biological features. Horney discussed
that the jealousy was more likely culturally based, due to the
greater privileges that males often have, and that differences
between men and women’s personalities were cultural, not
biologically based. Horney also suggested that men may have womb
envy, because men cannot give birth.
What is your birth order? Do you agree or disagree with Adler’s
description of your personality based on his birth order theory,
as described in the Link to Learning? Provide examples for
support.
Would you describe yourself as an extrovert or an introvert? Does
this vary based on the situation? Provide examples to support your
points.
Select an epic story that is popular in contemporary society (such
as Harry Potter or Star Wars) and explain it terms of Jung’s
concept of archetypes.
refers to a person’s feelings that they lack worth and don’t
measure up to others’ or to society’s standards
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
behaviorist perspective on personality * Describe the cognitive
perspective on personality * Describe the social cognitive
perspective on personality
In contrast to the psychodynamic approaches of Freud and the
neo-Freudians, which relate personality to inner (and hidden) processes,
the learning approaches focus only on observable behavior. This
illustrates one significant advantage of the learning approaches over
psychodynamics: Because learning approaches involve observable,
measurable phenomena, they can be scientifically tested.
Behaviorists do not believe in biological determinism: They do not see
personality traits as inborn. Instead, they view personality as
significantly shaped by the reinforcements and consequences outside of
the organism. In other words, people behave in a consistent manner based
on prior learning. B. F. Skinnerpastehere,
a strict behaviorist, believed that environment was solely responsible
for all behavior, including the enduring, consistent behavior patterns
studied by personality theorists.
As you may recall from your study on the psychology of learning, Skinner
proposed that we demonstrate consistent behavior patterns because we
have developed certain response tendencies (Skinner, 1953). In other
words, we learn to behave in particular ways. We increase the
behaviors that lead to positive consequences, and we decrease the
behaviors that lead to negative consequences. Skinner disagreed with
Freud’s idea that personality is fixed in childhood. He argued that
personality develops over our entire life, not only in the first few
years. Our responses can change as we come across new situations;
therefore, we can expect more variability over time in personality than
Freud would anticipate. For example, consider a young woman, Greta, a
risk taker. She drives fast and participates in dangerous sports such as
hang gliding and kiteboarding. But after she gets married and has
children, the system of reinforcements and punishments in her
environment changes. Speeding and extreme sports are no longer
reinforced, so she no longer engages in those behaviors. In fact, Greta
now describes herself as a cautious person.
Albert Bandurapastehere agreed with
Skinner that personality develops through learning{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}. He disagreed, however, with Skinner’s
strict behaviorist approach to personality development, because he felt
that thinking and reasoning are important components of learning. He
presented a social-cognitive theory{: data-type=“term”} of
personality that emphasizes both learning and cognition as sources of
individual differences in personality. In social-cognitive theory, the
concepts of reciprocal determinism, observational learning, and
self-efficacy all play a part in personality development.
In contrast to Skinner’s idea that the environment alone determines
behavior, Bandura (1990) proposed the concept of reciprocal
determinism{: data-type=“term”}, in which cognitive processes,
behavior, and context all interact, each factor influencing and being
influenced by the others simultaneously
([link]). Cognitive processes refer to
all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations,
and personality characteristics. Behavior refers to anything that we
do that may be rewarded or punished. Finally, the context in which the
behavior occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes
rewarding/punishing stimuli.
{:
#Figure_11_04_RecipDeter}
Consider, for example, that you’re at a festival and one of the
attractions is bungee jumping from a bridge. Do you do it? In this
example, the behavior is bungee jumping. Cognitive factors that might
influence this behavior include your beliefs and values, and your past
experiences with similar behaviors. Finally, context refers to the
reward structure for the behavior. According to reciprocal determinism,
all of these factors are in play.
Bandura’s key contribution to learning theory was the idea that much
learning is vicarious. We learn by observing someone else’s behavior and
its consequences, which Bandura called observational learning. He felt
that this type of learning also plays a part in the development of our
personality. Just as we learn individual behaviors, we learn new
behavior patterns when we see them performed by other people or models.
Drawing on the behaviorists’ ideas about reinforcement, Bandura
suggested that whether we choose to imitate a model’s behavior depends
on whether we see the model reinforced or punished. Through
observational learning, we come to learn what behaviors are acceptable
and rewarded in our culture, and we also learn to inhibit deviant or
socially unacceptable behaviors by seeing what behaviors are punished.
We can see the principles of reciprocal determinism at work in
observational learning. For example, personal factors determine which
behaviors in the environment a person chooses to imitate, and those
environmental events in turn are processed cognitively according to
other personal factors.
Bandura (1977, 1995) has studied a number of cognitive and personal
factors that affect learning and personality development, and most
recently has focused on the concept of self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy{: data-type=“term”} is our level of confidence in
our own abilities, developed through our social experiences.
Self-efficacy affects how we approach challenges and reach goals. In
observational learning, self-efficacy is a cognitive factor that affects
which behaviors we choose to imitate as well as our success in
performing those behaviors.
People who have high self-efficacy believe that their goals are within
reach, have a positive view of challenges seeing them as tasks to be
mastered, develop a deep interest in and strong commitment to the
activities in which they are involved, and quickly recover from
setbacks. Conversely, people with low self-efficacy avoid challenging
tasks because they doubt their ability to be successful, tend to focus
on failure and negative outcomes, and lose confidence in their abilities
if they experience setbacks. Feelings of self-efficacy can be specific
to certain situations. For instance, a student might feel confident in
her ability in English class but much less so in math class.
Julian Rotterpastehere (1966) proposed the
concept of locus of control, another cognitive factor that affects
learning and personality development. Distinct from self-efficacy, which
involves our belief in our own abilities, locus of control{:
data-type=“term”} refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our
lives. In Rotter’s view, people possess either an internal or an
external locus of control ([link]). Those of
us with an internal locus of control (“internals”) tend to believe that
most of our outcomes are the direct result of our efforts. Those of us
with an external locus of control (“externals”) tend to believe that our
outcomes are outside of our control. Externals see their lives as being
controlled by other people, luck, or chance. For example, say you didn’t
spend much time studying for your psychology test and went out to dinner
with friends instead. When you receive your test score, you see that you
earned a D. If you possess an internal locus of control, you would most
likely admit that you failed because you didn’t spend enough time
studying and decide to study more for the next test. On the other hand,
if you possess an external locus of control, you might conclude that the
test was too hard and not bother studying for the next test, because you
figure you will fail it anyway. Researchers have found that people with
an internal locus of control perform better academically, achieve more
in their careers, are more independent, are healthier, are better able
to cope, and are less depressed than people who have an external locus
of control (Benassi, Sweeney, & Durfour, 1988; Lefcourt, 1982; Maltby,
Day, & Macaskill, 2007; Whyte, 1977, 1978, 1980).
{: #Figure_11_04_Control}
See also
Take the Locus of Control
questionnaire. Scores range from 0 to 13. A low score on this
questionnaire indicates an internal locus of control, and a high
score indicates an external locus of control.
Walter Mischelpastehere was a student of
Julian Rotter and taught for years at Stanford, where he was a colleague
of Albert Bandura. Mischel surveyed several decades of empirical
psychological literature regarding trait prediction of behavior, and his
conclusion shook the foundations of personality psychology. Mischel
found that the data did not support the central principle of the
field—that a person’s personality traits are consistent across
situations. His report triggered a decades-long period of
self-examination, known as the person-situation debate, among
personality psychologists.
Mischel suggested that perhaps we were looking for consistency in the
wrong places. He found that although behavior was inconsistent across
different situations, it was much more consistent within situations—so
that a person’s behavior in one situation would likely be repeated in a
similar one. And as you will see next regarding his famous “marshmallow
test,” Mischel also found that behavior is consistent in equivalent
situations across time.
One of Mischel’s most notable contributions to personality psychology
was his ideas on self-regulation. According to Lecci & Magnavita (2013),
“Self-regulation is the process of identifying a goal or set of goals
and, in pursuing these goals, using both internal (e.g., thoughts and
affect) and external (e.g., responses of anything or anyone in the
environment) feedback to maximize goal attainment” (p. 6.3).
Self-regulation is also known as will power. When we talk about will
power, we tend to think of it as the ability to delay gratification. For
example, Bettina’s teenage daughter made strawberry cupcakes, and they
looked delicious. However, Bettina forfeited the pleasure of eating one,
because she is training for a 5K race and wants to be fit and do well in
the race. Would you be able to resist getting a small reward now in
order to get a larger reward later? This is the question Mischel
investigated in his now-classic marshmallow test.
Mischel designed a study to assess self-regulation in young children. In
the marshmallow study, Mischel and his colleagues placed a preschool
child in a room with one marshmallow on the table. The child was told
that he could either eat the marshmallow now, or wait until the
researcher returned to the room and then he could have two marshmallows
(Mischel, Ebbesen & Raskoff, 1972). This was repeated with hundreds of
preschoolers. What Mischel and his team found was that young children
differ in their degree of self-control. Mischel and his colleagues
continued to follow this group of preschoolers through high school, and
what do you think they discovered? The children who had more
self-control in preschool (the ones who waited for the bigger reward)
were more successful in high school. They had higher SAT scores, had
positive peer relationships, and were less likely to have substance
abuse issues; as adults, they also had more stable marriages (Mischel,
Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989; Mischel et al., 2010). On the other hand,
those children who had poor self-control in preschool (the ones who
grabbed the one marshmallow) were not as successful in high school, and
they were found to have academic and behavioral problems.
See also
To learn more about the marshmallow test and view the test given to
children in Columbia, follow the link below to Joachim de Posada’s
TEDTalks video.
Today, the debate is mostly resolved, and most psychologists consider
both the situation and personal factors in understanding behavior. For
Mischel (1993), people are situation processors. The children in the
marshmallow test each processed, or interpreted, the rewards structure
of that situation in their own way. Mischel’s approach to personality
stresses the importance of both the situation and the way the person
perceives the situation. Instead of behavior being determined by the
situation, people use cognitive processes to interpret the situation and
then behave in accordance with that interpretation.
Behavioral theorists view personality as significantly shaped and
impacted by the reinforcements and consequences outside of the organism.
People behave in a consistent manner based on prior learning. B. F.
Skinner, a prominent behaviorist, said that we demonstrate consistent
behavior patterns, because we have developed certain response
tendencies. Mischel focused on how personal goals play a role in the
self-regulation process. Albert Bandura said that one’s environment can
determine behavior, but at the same time, people can influence the
environment with both their thoughts and behaviors, which is known as
reciprocal determinism. Bandura also emphasized how we learn from
watching others. He felt that this type of learning also plays a part in
the development of our personality. Bandura discussed the concept of
self-efficacy, which is our level of confidence in our own abilities.
Finally, Rotter proposed the concept of locus of control, which refers
to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives. He said that
people fall along a continuum between a purely internal and a purely
external locus of control.
Question
Self-regulation is also known as ________.
self-efficacy
will power
internal locus of control
external locus of control {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Your level of confidence in your own abilities is known as
________.
self-efficacy
self-concept
self-control
self-esteem {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Jane believes that she got a bad grade on her psychology paper
because her professor doesn’t like her. Jane most likely has an
_______ locus of control.
Compare the personalities of someone who has high self-efficacy to
someone who has low self-efficacy.
People who have high self-efficacy believe that their efforts
matter. They perceive their goals as being within reach; have a
positive view of challenges, seeing them as tasks to be mastered;
develop a deep interest in and strong commitment to the activities
in which they are involved; and quickly recover from setbacks.
Conversely, people with low self-efficacy believe their efforts
have little or no effect, and that outcomes are beyond their
control. They avoid challenging tasks because they doubt their
abilities to be successful; tend to focus on failure and negative
outcomes; and lose confidence in their abilities if they
experience setbacks.
Compare and contrast Skinner’s perspective on personality
development to Freud’s.
Skinner disagreed with Freud’s idea that childhood plays an
important role in shaping our personality. He argued that
personality develops over our entire life, rather than in the
first few years of life as Freud suggested. Skinner said that our
responses can change as we come across new situations; therefore,
we can see more variability over time in personality.
beliefs about the power we have over our lives; an external locus
of control is the belief that our outcomes are outside of our
control; an internal locus of control is the belief that we
control our own outcomes ^
belief that one’s environment can determine behavior, but at the
same time, people can influence the environment with both their
thoughts and behaviors ^
Bandura’s theory of personality that emphasizes both cognition and
learning as sources of individual differences in personality
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Discuss the
findings of the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart as they relate
to personality and genetics * Discuss temperament and describe the
three infant temperaments identified by Thomas and Chess * Discuss
the evolutionary perspective on personality development
How much of our personality is in-born and biological, and how much is
influenced by the environment and culture we are raised in?
Psychologists who favor the biological approach believe that inherited
predispositions as well as physiological processes can be used to
explain differences in our personalities (Burger, 2008).
In the field of behavioral genetics, the Minnesota Study of Twins
Reared Apartpastehere—a well-known study of
the genetic basis for personality—conducted research with twins from
1979 to 1999. In studying 350 pairs of twins, including pairs of
identical and fraternal twins reared together and apart, researchers
found that identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very
similar personalities (Bouchard, 1994; Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, &
Tellegen, 1990; Segal, 2012). These findings suggest the heritability of
some personality traits. Heritability{: data-type=“term”} refers
to the proportion of difference among people that is attributed to
genetics. Some of the traits that the study reported as having more than
a 0.50 heritability ratio include leadership, obedience to authority, a
sense of well-being, alienation, resistance to stress, and fearfulness.
The implication is that some aspects of our personalities are largely
controlled by genetics; however, it’s important to point out that traits
are not determined by a single gene, but by a combination of many genes,
as well as by epigenetic factors that control whether the genes are
expressed.
See also
To what extent is our personality dictated by our genetic makeup?
View this video to learn more.
Most contemporary psychologists believe temperament has a biological
basis due to its appearance very early in our lives (Rothbart, 2011). As
you learned when you studied lifespan development, Thomas and Chess
(1977) found that babies could be categorized into one of three
temperaments: easy, difficult, or slow to warm up. However,
environmental factors (family interactions, for example) and maturation
can affect the ways in which children’s personalities are expressed
(Carter et al., 2008).
Research suggests that there are two dimensions of our temperament that
are important parts of our adult personality—reactivity and
self-regulation (Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000). Reactivity refers to
how we respond to new or challenging environmental stimuli;
self-regulation refers to our ability to control that response (Rothbart
& Derryberry, 1981; Rothbart, Sheese, Rueda, & Posner, 2011). For
example, one person may immediately respond to new stimuli with a high
level of anxiety, while another barely notices it.
Body Type and Temperament
Is there an association between your body type and your temperament?
The constitutional perspective, which examines the relationship
between the structure of the human body and behavior, seeks to answer
this question (Genovese, 2008). The first comprehensive system of
constitutional psychology was proposed by American psychologist
William H. Sheldon (1940, 1942). He believed that your body type can
be linked to your personality. Sheldon’s life’s work was spent
observing human bodies and temperaments. Based on his observations
and interviews of hundreds of people, he proposed three
body/personality types, which he called somatotypes.
The three somatotypes are ectomorphs, endomorphs, and mesomorphs
([link]). Ectomorphs are thin with a
small bone structure and very little fat on their bodies. According
to Sheldon, the ectomorph personality is anxious, self-conscious,
artistic, thoughtful, quiet, and private. They enjoy intellectual
stimulation and feel uncomfortable in social situations. Actors
Adrien Brody and Nicole Kidman would be characterized as ectomorphs.
Endomorphs are the opposite of ectomorphs. Endomorphs have narrow
shoulders and wide hips, and carry extra fat on their round bodies.
Sheldon described endomorphs as being relaxed, comfortable,
good-humored, even-tempered, sociable, and tolerant. Endomorphs enjoy
affection and detest disapproval. Queen Latifah and Jack Black would
be considered endomorphs. The third somatotype is the mesomorph. This
body type falls between the ectomorph and the endomorph. Mesomorphs
have large bone structure, well-defined muscles, broad shoulders,
narrow waists, and attractive, strong bodies. According to Sheldon,
mesomorphs are adventurous, assertive, competitive, and fearless.
They are curious and enjoy trying new things, but can also be
obnoxious and aggressive. Channing Tatum and Scarlett Johannson would
likely be mesomorphs.
{:
#Figure_11_06_Somatotype}
Sheldon (1949) also conducted further research into somatotypes and
criminality. He measured the physical proportions of hundreds of
juvenile delinquent boys in comparison to male college students, and
found that problem youth were primarily mesomorphs. Why might this
be? Perhaps it’s because they are quick to anger and don’t have the
restraint demonstrated by ectomorphs. Maybe it’s because a person
with a mesomorphic body type reflects high levels of testosterone,
which may lead to more aggressive behavior. Can you think of other
explanations for Sheldon’s findings?
Sheldon’s method of somatotyping is not without criticism, as it has
been considered largely subjective (Carter & Heath, 1990; Cortés &
Gatti, 1972; Parnell, 1958). More systematic and controlled research
methods did not support his findings (Eysenck, 1970). Consequently,
it’s not uncommon to see his theory labeled as pseudoscience, much
like Gall’s theory of phrenology (Rafter, 2007; Rosenbaum, 1995).
However, studies involving correlations between somatotype,
temperament, and children’s school performance (Sanford et al., 1943;
Parnell); somatotype and performance of pilots during wartime (Damon,
1955); and somatotype and temperament (Peterson, Liivamagi, & Koskel,
2006) did support his theory.
Some aspects of our personalities are largely controlled by genetics;
however, environmental factors (such as family interactions) and
maturation can affect the ways in which children’s personalities are
expressed.
Question
The way a person reacts to the world, starting when they are very
young, including the person’s activity level is known as
________.
traits
temperament
heritability
personality {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Brianna is 18 months old. She cries frequently, is hard to soothe,
and wakes frequently during the night. According to Thomas and
Chess, she would be considered ________.
an easy baby
a difficult baby
a slow to warm up baby
a colicky baby {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
According to the findings of the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared
Apart, identical twins, whether raised together or apart have
________ personalities.
slightly different
very different
slightly similar
very similar {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Temperament refers to ________.
inborn, genetically based personality differences
characteristic ways of behaving
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and
extroversion
How might a temperament mix between parent and child affect family
life?
An easygoing parent may be irritated by a difficult child. If both
parent and child have difficult temperaments, then conflicts in
the parent-child relationship might result quite often.
Research suggests that many of our personality characteristics
have a genetic component. What traits do you think you inherited
from your parents? Provide examples. How might modeling
(environment) influenced your characteristics as well?
how a person reacts to the world, including their activity level,
starting when they are very young
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Discuss early
trait theories of Cattell and Eysenck * Discuss the Big Five factors
and describe someone who is high and low on each of the five traits
Trait theorists believe personality can be understood via the approach
that all people have certain traits{: data-type=“term”}, or
characteristic ways of behaving. Do you tend to be sociable or shy?
Passive or aggressive? Optimistic or pessimistic? Moody or
even-tempered? Early trait theorists tried to describe all human
personality traits. For example, one trait theorist, Gordon Allport
(Allport & Odbert, 1936), found 4,500 words in the English language that
could describe people. He organized these personality traits into three
categories: cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits. A
cardinal trait is one that dominates your entire personality, and hence
your life—such as Ebenezer Scrooge’s greed and Mother Theresa’s
altruism. Cardinal traits are not very common: Few people have
personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities
typically are composed of multiple traits. Central traits are those that
make up our personalities (such as loyal, kind, agreeable, friendly,
sneaky, wild, and grouchy). Secondary traits are those that are not
quite as obvious or as consistent as central traits. They are present
under specific circumstances and include preferences and attitudes. For
example, one person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another
can only sleep on the left side of the bed; and yet another always
orders her salad dressing on the side. And you—although not normally an
anxious person—feel nervous before making a speech in front of your
English class.
In an effort to make the list of traits more manageable, Raymond Cattell
(1946, 1957) narrowed down the list to about 171 traits. However, saying
that a trait is either present or absent does not accurately reflect a
person’s uniqueness, because all of our personalities are actually made
up of the same traits; we differ only in the degree to which each trait
is expressed. Cattell (1957) identified 16 factors or dimensions of
personality: warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance,
liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance,
abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change,
self-reliance, perfectionism, and tension
([link]). He developed a personality assessment
based on these 16 factors, called the 16PF. Instead of a trait being
present or absent, each dimension is scored over a continuum, from high
to low. For example, your level of warmth describes how warm, caring,
and nice to others you are. If you score low on this index, you tend to
be more distant and cold. A high score on this index signifies you are
supportive and comforting.
Personality Factors Measured by the 16PF Questionnaire
Factor
Low Score
High Score
Warmth
Reserved, detached
Outgoing, supportive
Intellect
Concrete thinker
Analytical
Emotional stability
Moody, irritable
Stable, calm
Aggressiveness
Docile, submissive
Controlling, dominant
Liveliness
Somber, prudent
Adventurous, spontaneous
Dutifulness
Unreliable
Conscientious
Social assertiveness
Shy, restrained
Uninhibited, bold
Sensitivity
Tough-minded
Sensitive, caring
Paranoia
Trusting
Suspicious
Abstractness
Conventional
Imaginative
Introversion
Open, straightforward
Private, shrewd
Anxiety
Confident
Apprehensive
Openmindedness
Closeminded, traditional
Curious, experimental
Independence
Outgoing, social
Self-sufficient
Perfectionism
Disorganized, casual
Organized, precise
Tension
Relaxed
Stressed
See also
Follow this link to an assessment
based on Cattell’s 16PF questionnaire to see which personality traits
dominate your personality.
Psychologists Hans and Sybil Eysenck{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} were personality theorists
([link]) who focused on temperament{:
data-type=“term”}, the inborn, genetically based personality differences
that you studied earlier in the chapter. They believed personality is
largely governed by biology. The Eysencks (Eysenck, 1990, 1992; Eysenck
& Eysenck, 1963) viewed people as having two specific personality
dimensions: extroversion/introversion and neuroticism/stability.
{:
#Figure_11_07_Eysenck}
According to their theory, people high on the trait of extroversion are
sociable and outgoing, and readily connect with others, whereas people
high on the trait of introversion have a higher need to be alone, engage
in solitary behaviors, and limit their interactions with others. In the
neuroticism/stability dimension, people high on neuroticism tend to be
anxious; they tend to have an overactive sympathetic nervous system and,
even with low stress, their bodies and emotional state tend to go into a
flight-or-fight reaction. In contrast, people high on stability tend to
need more stimulation to activate their flight-or-fight reaction and are
considered more emotionally stable. Based on these two dimensions, the
Eysencks’ theory divides people into four quadrants. These quadrants are
sometimes compared with the four temperaments described by the Greeks:
melancholic, choleric, phlegmatic, and sanguine
([link]).
{: #Figure_11_04_Quadrants}
Later, the Eysencks added a third dimension: psychoticism versus
superego control (Eysenck, Eysenck & Barrett, 1985). In this dimension,
people who are high on psychoticism tend to be independent thinkers,
cold, nonconformists, impulsive, antisocial, and hostile, whereas people
who are high on superego control tend to have high impulse control—they
are more altruistic, empathetic, cooperative, and conventional (Eysenck,
Eysenck & Barrett, 1985).
While Cattell’s 16 factors may be too broad, the Eysenck’s two-factor
system has been criticized for being too narrow. Another personality
theory, called the Five Factor Model{: data-type=“term”},
effectively hits a middle ground, with its five factors referred to as
the Big Five personality traits. It is the most popular theory in
personality psychology today and the most accurate approximation of the
basic trait dimensions (Funder, 2001). The five traits are openness to
experience, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and
neuroticism ([link]). A helpful way to
remember the traits is by using the mnemonic OCEAN.
In the Five Factor Model, each person has each trait, but they occur
along a spectrum. Openness to experience is characterized by
imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas. People who score high on this
trait tend to be curious and have a wide range of interests.
Conscientiousness is characterized by competence, self-discipline,
thoughtfulness, and achievement-striving (goal-directed behavior).
People who score high on this trait are hardworking and dependable.
Numerous studies have found a positive correlation between
conscientiousness and academic success (Akomolafe, 2013;
Chamorro-Premuzic & Furnham, 2008; Conrad & Patry, 2012; Noftle &
Robins, 2007; Wagerman & Funder, 2007). Extroversion is characterized by
sociability, assertiveness, excitement-seeking, and emotional
expression. People who score high on this trait are usually described as
outgoing and warm. Not surprisingly, people who score high on both
extroversion and openness are more likely to participate in adventure
and risky sports due to their curious and excitement-seeking nature
(Tok, 2011). The fourth trait is agreeableness, which is the tendency to
be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured. People who
score low on agreeableness tend to be described as rude and
uncooperative, yet one recent study reported that men who scored low on
this trait actually earned more money than men who were considered more
agreeable (Judge, Livingston, & Hurst, 2012). The last of the Big Five
traits is neuroticism, which is the tendency to experience negative
emotions. People high on neuroticism tend to experience emotional
instability and are characterized as angry, impulsive, and hostile.
Watson and Clark (1984) found that people reporting high levels of
neuroticism also tend to report feeling anxious and unhappy. In
contrast, people who score low in neuroticism tend to be calm and
even-tempered.
{: #Figure_11_07_BigFive}
The Big Five personality factors each represent a range between two
extremes. In reality, most of us tend to lie somewhere midway along the
continuum of each factor, rather than at polar ends. It’s important to
note that the Big Five traits are relatively stable over our lifespan,
with some tendency for the traits to increase or decrease slightly.
Researchers have found that conscientiousness increases through young
adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to manage our
personal relationships and careers (Donnellan & Lucas, 2008).
Agreeableness also increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years
(Terracciano, McCrae, Brant, & Costa, 2005). Neuroticism and
extroversion tend to decline slightly with age (Donnellan & Lucas;
Terracciano et al.). Additionally, The Big Five traits have been shown
to exist across ethnicities, cultures, and ages, and may have
substantial biological and genetic components (Jang, Livesley, & Vernon,
1996; Jang et al., 2006; McCrae & Costa, 1997; Schmitt et al., 2007).
See also
To find out about your personality and where you fall on the Big Five
traits, follow this link to take the
Big Five personality test.
Trait theorists attempt to explain our personality by identifying our
stable characteristics and ways of behaving. They have identified
important dimensions of personality. The Five Factor Model is the most
widely accepted trait theory today. The five factors are openness,
conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. These
traits occur along a continuum.
Question
According to the Eysencks’ theory, people who score high on
neuroticism tend to be ________.
How stable are the Big Five traits over one’s lifespan?
The Big Five traits are relatively stable over our lifespan with a
tendency for the traits to increase or decrease slightly.
Researchers have found that conscientiousness increases through
young adulthood into middle age, as we become better able to
manage our personal relationships and careers. Agreeableness also
increases with age, peaking between 50 to 70 years. However,
neuroticism and extroversion tend to decline slightly with age.
Compare the personality of someone who scores high on
agreeableness to someone who scores low on agreeableness.
A person with a high score on agreeableness is typically pleasant,
cooperative, trustworthy and good-natured. People who score low on
agreeableness tend to be described as rude and uncooperative. They
may be difficult with which to work.
Review the Big Five personality traits shown in
[link]. On which areas would you
expect you’d score high? In which areas does the low score more
accurately describe you?
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If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section you should be able to: * Discuss
personality differences of people from collectivist and individualist
cultures * Discuss the three approaches to studying personality in a
cultural context
As you have learned in this chapter, personality is shaped by both
genetic and environmental factors. The culture{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} in which you live is one of the most important
environmental factors that shapes your personality (Triandis & Suh,
2002). The term culture{: data-type=“term”} refers to all of the
beliefs, customs, art, and traditions of a particular society. Culture
is transmitted to people through language as well as through the
modeling of culturally acceptable and nonacceptable behaviors that are
either rewarded or punished (Triandis & Suh, 2002). With these ideas in
mind, personality psychologists have become interested in the role of
culture in understanding personality. They ask whether personality
traits are the same across cultures or if there are variations. It
appears that there are both universal and culture-specific aspects that
account for variation in people’s personalities.
Why might it be important to consider cultural influences on
personality? Western ideas about personality may not be applicable to
other cultures (Benet-Martinez & Oishi, 2008). In fact, there is
evidence that the strength of personality traits varies across cultures.
Let’s take a look at some of the Big Five factors (conscientiousness,
neuroticism, openness, and extroversion) across cultures. As you will
learn when you study social psychology, Asian cultures are more
collectivist, and people in these cultures tend to be less extroverted.
People in Central and South American cultures tend to score higher on
openness to experience, whereas Europeans score higher on neuroticism
(Benet-Martinez & Karakitapoglu-Aygun, 2003).
According to this study, there also seem to be regional personality
differences within the United States
([link]). Researchers analyzed responses
from over 1.5 million individuals in the United States and found that
there are three distinct regional personality clusters: Cluster 1, which
is in the Upper Midwest and Deep South, is dominated by people who fall
into the “friendly and conventional” personality; Cluster 2, which
includes the West, is dominated by people who are more relaxed,
emotionally stable, calm, and creative; and Cluster 3, which includes
the Northeast, has more people who are stressed, irritable, and
depressed. People who live in Clusters 2 and 3 are also generally more
open (Rentfrow et al., 2013).
{: #Figure_11_08_Clusters}
One explanation for the regional differences is selective
migration{: data-type=“term”} (Rentfrow et al., 2013). Selective
migration is the concept that people choose to move to places that are
compatible with their personalities and needs. For example, a person
high on the agreeable scale would likely want to live near family and
friends, and would choose to settle or remain in such an area. In
contrast, someone high on openness would prefer to settle in a place
that is recognized as diverse and innovative (such as California).
Individualist cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on
different basic values. People who live in individualist cultures tend
to believe that independence, competition, and personal achievement are
important. Individuals in Western nations such as the United States,
England, and Australia score high on individualism (Oyserman, Coon, &
Kemmelmier, 2002). People who live in collectivist cultures value social
harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs.
Individuals who live in countries in Asia, Africa, and South America
score high on collectivism (Hofstede, 2001; Triandis, 1995). These
values influence personality. For example, Yang (2006) found that people
in individualist cultures displayed more personally oriented personality
traits, whereas people in collectivist cultures displayed more socially
oriented personality traits.
There are three approaches that can be used to study personality in a
cultural context, the cultural-comparative approach; the indigenous
approach; and the combined approach, which incorporates elements of
both views. Since ideas about personality have a Western basis, the
cultural-comparative approach seeks to test Western ideas about
personality in other cultures to determine whether they can be
generalized and if they have cultural validity (Cheung van de Vijver, &
Leong, 2011). For example, recall from the previous section on the trait
perspective that researchers used the cultural-comparative approach to
test the universality of McCrae and Costa’s Five Factor Model. They
found applicability in numerous cultures around the world, with the Big
Five traits being stable in many cultures (McCrae & Costa, 1997; McCrae
et al., 2005). The indigenous approach came about in reaction to the
dominance of Western approaches to the study of personality in
non-Western settings (Cheung et al., 2011). Because Western-based
personality assessments cannot fully capture the personality constructs
of other cultures, the indigenous model has led to the development of
personality assessment instruments that are based on constructs relevant
to the culture being studied (Cheung et al., 2011). The third approach
to cross-cultural studies of personality is the combined approach, which
serves as a bridge between Western and indigenous psychology as a way of
understanding both universal and cultural variations in personality
(Cheung et al., 2011).
The culture in which you live is one of the most important environmental
factors that shapes your personality. Western ideas about personality
may not be applicable to other cultures. In fact, there is evidence that
the strength of personality traits varies across cultures. Individualist
cultures and collectivist cultures place emphasis on different basic
values. People who live in individualist cultures tend to believe that
independence, competition, and personal achievement are important.
People who live in collectivist cultures value social harmony,
respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs. There are three
approaches that can be used to study personality in a cultural context:
the cultural-comparative approach, the indigenous approach, and the
combined approach, which incorporates both elements of both views.
Question
The United States is considered a ________ culture.
collectivistic
individualist
traditional
nontraditional {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The concept that people choose to move to places that are
compatible with their personalities and needs is known as
________.
Why might it be important to consider cultural influences on
personality?
Since culture influences one’s personality, then Western ideas
about personality may not be applicable to people of other
cultures. In addition, Western-based measures of personality
assessment may not be valid when used to collect data on people
from other cultures.
According to the work of Rentfrow and colleagues, personalities
are not randomly distributed. Instead they fit into distinct
geographic clusters. Based on where you live, do you agree or
disagree with the traits associated with yourself and the
residents of your area of the country? Why or why not?
concept that people choose to move to places that are compatible
with their personalities and needs
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Discuss the
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory * Recognize and describe
common projective tests used in personality assessment
Roberto, Mikhail, and Nat are college friends and all want to be police
officers. Roberto is quiet and shy, lacks self-confidence, and usually
follows others. He is a kind person, but lacks motivation. Mikhail is
loud and boisterous, a leader. He works hard, but is impulsive and
drinks too much on the weekends. Nat is thoughtful and well liked. He is
trustworthy, but sometimes he has difficulty making quick decisions. Of
these three men, who would make the best police officer? What qualities
and personality factors make someone a good police officer? What makes
someone a bad or dangerous police officer?
A police officer’s job is very high in stress, and law enforcement
agencies want to make sure they hire the right people. Personality
testing is often used for this purpose—to screen applicants for
employment and job training. Personality tests are also used in criminal
cases and custody battles, and to assess psychological disorders. This
section explores the best known among the many different types of
personality tests.
Self-report inventories are a kind of objective test used to assess
personality. They typically use multiple-choice items or numbered
scales, which represent a range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5
(strongly agree). They often are called Likert scales after their
developer, Rensis Likert (1932) ([link]).
{: #Figure_11_09_Likert}
One of the most widely used personality inventories is the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI){: data-type=“term”}, first
published in 1943, with 504 true/false questions, and updated to the
MMPI-2 in 1989, with 567 questions. The original MMPI was based on a
small, limited sample, composed mostly of Minnesota farmers and
psychiatric patients; the revised inventory was based on a more
representative, national sample to allow for better standardization. The
MMPI-2 takes 1–2 hours to complete. Responses are scored to produce a
clinical profile composed of 10 scales: hypochondriasis, depression,
hysteria, psychopathic deviance (social deviance), masculinity versus
femininity, paranoia, psychasthenia (obsessive/compulsive qualities),
schizophrenia, hypomania, and social introversion. There is also a scale
to ascertain risk factors for alcohol abuse. In 2008, the test was again
revised, using more advanced methods, to the MMPI-2-RF. This version
takes about one-half the time to complete and has only 338 questions
([link]). Despite the new test’s advantages,
the MMPI-2 is more established and is still more widely used. Typically,
the tests are administered by computer. Although the MMPI was originally
developed to assist in the clinical diagnosis of psychological
disorders, it is now also used for occupational screening, such as in
law enforcement, and in college, career, and marital counseling
(Ben-Porath & Tellegen, 2008).
{: #Figure_11_09_MMPI}
In addition to clinical scales, the tests also have validity and
reliability scales. (Recall the concepts of reliability and validity
from your study of psychological research.) One of the validity scales,
the Lie Scale (or “L” Scale), consists of 15 items and is used to
ascertain whether the respondent is “faking good” (underreporting
psychological problems to appear healthier). For example, if someone
responds “yes” to a number of unrealistically positive items such as “I
have never told a lie,” they may be trying to “fake good” or appear
better than they actually are.
Reliability scales test an instrument’s consistency over time, assuring
that if you take the MMPI-2-RF today and then again 5 years later, your
two scores will be similar. Beutler, Nussbaum, and Meredith (1988) gave
the MMPI to newly recruited police officers and then to the same police
officers 2 years later. After 2 years on the job, police officers’
responses indicated an increased vulnerability to alcoholism, somatic
symptoms (vague, unexplained physical complaints), and anxiety. When the
test was given an additional 2 years later (4 years after starting on
the job), the results suggested high risk for alcohol-related
difficulties.
Another method for assessment of personality is projective
testing{: data-type=“term”}. This kind of test relies on one of the
defense mechanisms proposed by Freud—projection—as a way to assess
unconscious processes. During this type of testing, a series of
ambiguous cards is shown to the person being tested, who then is
encouraged to project his feelings, impulses, and desires onto the
cards—by telling a story, interpreting an image, or completing a
sentence. Many projective tests have undergone standardization
procedures (for example, Exner, 2002) and can be used to access whether
someone has unusual thoughts or a high level of anxiety, or is likely to
become volatile. Some examples of projective tests are the Rorschach
Inkblot Test, the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), the
Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks test, the TEMAS
(Tell-Me-A-Story), and the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB).
The Rorschach Inkblot Test{: data-type=“term”} was developed in
1921 by a Swiss psychologist named Hermann Rorschach (pronounced
“ROAR-shock”). It is a series of symmetrical inkblot cards that are
presented to a client by a psychologist. Upon presentation of each card,
the psychologist asks the client, “What might this be?” What the
test-taker sees reveals unconscious feelings and struggles (Piotrowski,
1987; Weiner, 2003). The Rorschach has been standardized using the Exner
system and is effective in measuring depression, psychosis, and anxiety.
A second projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT){:
data-type=“term”}, created in the 1930s by Henry Murray, an American
psychologist, and a psychoanalyst named Christiana Morgan. A person
taking the TAT is shown 8–12 ambiguous pictures and is asked to tell a
story about each picture. The stories give insight into their social
world, revealing hopes, fears, interests, and goals. The storytelling
format helps to lower a person’s resistance divulging unconscious
personal details (Cramer, 2004). The TAT has been used in clinical
settings to evaluate psychological disorders; more recently, it has been
used in counseling settings to help clients gain a better understanding
of themselves and achieve personal growth. Standardization of test
administration is virtually nonexistent among clinicians, and the test
tends to be modest to low on validity and reliability (Aronow, Weiss, &
Rezinkoff, 2001; Lilienfeld, Wood, & Garb, 2000). Despite these
shortcomings, the TAT has been one of the most widely used projective
tests.
A third projective test is the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank
(RISB){: data-type=“term”} developed by Julian Rotter in 1950
(recall his theory of locus of control, covered earlier in this
chapter). There are three forms of this test for use with different age
groups: the school form, the college form, and the adult form. The tests
include 40 incomplete sentences that people are asked to complete as
quickly as possible ([link]). The average time
for completing the test is approximately 20 minutes, as responses are
only 1–2 words in length. This test is similar to a word association
test, and like other types of projective tests, it is presumed that
responses will reveal desires, fears, and struggles. The RISB is used in
screening college students for adjustment problems and in career
counseling (Holaday, Smith, & Sherry, 2010; Rotter & Rafferty 1950).
{: #Figure_11_09_ISB}
For many decades, these traditional projective tests have been used in
cross-cultural personality assessments. However, it was found that test
bias limited their usefulness (Hoy-Watkins & Jenkins-Moore, 2008). It is
difficult to assess the personalities and lifestyles of members of
widely divergent ethnic/cultural groups using personality instruments
based on data from a single culture or race (Hoy-Watkins &
Jenkins-Moore, 2008). For example, when the TAT was used with
African-American test takers, the result was often shorter story length
and low levels of cultural identification (Duzant, 2005). Therefore, it
was vital to develop other personality assessments that explored factors
such as race, language, and level of acculturation (Hoy-Watkins &
Jenkins-Moore, 2008). To address this need, Robert Williams developed
the first culturally specific projective test designed to reflect the
everyday life experiences of African Americans (Hoy-Watkins &
Jenkins-Moore, 2008). The updated version of the instrument is the
Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB){:
data-type=“term”} (Williams, 1972). The C-TCB contains 20 color images
that show scenes of African-American lifestyles. When the C-TCB was
compared with the TAT for African Americans, it was found that use of
the C-TCB led to increased story length, higher degrees of positive
feelings, and stronger identification with the C-TCB (Hoy, 1997;
Hoy-Watkins & Jenkins-Moore, 2008).
The TEMAS Multicultural Thematic Apperception Test{:
data-type=“term”} is another tool designed to be culturally relevant to
minority groups, especially Hispanic youths. TEMAS—standing for “Tell Me
a Story” but also a play on the Spanish word temas (themes)—uses images
and storytelling cues that relate to minority culture (Constantino,
1982).
Personality tests are techniques designed to measure one’s personality.
They are used to diagnose psychological problems as well as to screen
candidates for college and employment. There are two types of
personality tests: self-report inventories and projective tests. The
MMPI is one of the most common self-report inventories. It asks a series
of true/false questions that are designed to provide a clinical profile
of an individual. Projective tests use ambiguous images or other
ambiguous stimuli to assess an individual’s unconscious fears, desires,
and challenges. The Rorschach Inkblot Test, the TAT, the RISB, and the
C-TCB are all forms of projective tests.
Why might a prospective employer screen applicants using
personality assessments?
They can help an employer predict a candidate’s reactions and
attitudes to various situations they might encounter on the job,
thus helping choose the right person for the job. This is
particularly important in hiring for a high-risk job such as law
enforcement. Personality tests can also reveal a potential
employee’s desirable qualities such as honesty, motivation, and
conscientiousness.
Why would a clinician give someone a projective test?
A projective test could give the clinician clues about dreams,
fears, and personal struggles of which the client may be unaware,
since these tests are designed to reveal unconscious motivations
and attitudes. They can also help clinicians diagnose
psychological disorders.
How objective do you think you can be about yourself in answering
questions on self-report personality assessment measures? What
implications might this have for the validity of the personality
test?
Contemporized-Themes Concerning Blacks Test (C-TCB)
projective test designed to be culturally relevant to African
Americans, using images that relate to African-American culture ^
projective test that employs a series of symmetrical inkblot cards
that are presented to a client by a psychologist in an effort to
reveal the person’s unconscious desires, fears, and struggles ^
projective test that is similar to a word association test in
which a person completes sentences in order to reveal their
unconscious desires, fears, and struggles ^
projective test designed to be culturally relevant to minority
groups, especially Hispanic youths, using images and storytelling
that relate to minority culture ^
projective test in which people are presented with ambiguous
images, and they then make up stories to go with the images in an
effort to uncover their unconscious desires, fears, and struggles
Copyright Notice
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If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Discuss the
contributions of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers to personality
development
As the “third force” in psychology, humanism{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} is touted as a reaction both to the pessimistic
determinism of psychoanalysis, with its emphasis on psychological
disturbance, and to the behaviorists’ view of humans passively reacting
to the environment, which has been criticized as making people out to be
personality-less robots. It does not suggest that psychoanalytic,
behaviorist, and other points of view are incorrect but argues that
these perspectives do not recognize the depth and meaning of human
experience, and fail to recognize the innate capacity for self-directed
change and transforming personal experiences. This perspective focuses
on how healthy people develop. One pioneering humanist, Abraham
Maslowpastehere, studied people who he
considered to be healthy, creative, and productive, including Albert
Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and
others. Maslow (1950, 1970) found that such people share similar
characteristics, such as being open, creative, loving, spontaneous,
compassionate, concerned for others, and accepting of themselves. When
you studied motivation, you learned about one of the best-known
humanistic theories, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, in which Maslow
proposes that human beings have certain needs in common and that these
needs must be met in a certain order. The highest need is the need for
self-actualization, which is the achievement of our fullest potential.
Another humanistic theorist was Carl Rogers. One of Rogers’s main ideas
about personality regards self-concept{: data-type=“term”}, our
thoughts and feelings about ourselves. How would you respond to the
question, “Who am I?” Your answer can show how you see yourself. If your
response is primarily positive, then you tend to feel good about who you
are, and you see the world as a safe and positive place. If your
response is mainly negative, then you may feel unhappy with who you are.
Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and
the real self. The ideal self{: data-type=“term”} is the person
that you would like to be; the real self{: data-type=“term”} is
the person you actually are. Rogers focused on the idea that we need to
achieve consistency between these two selves. We experience
congruence{: data-type=“term”} when our thoughts about our real
self and ideal self are very similar—in other words, when our
self-concept is accurate. High congruence leads to a greater sense of
self-worth and a healthy, productive life. Parents can help their
children achieve this by giving them unconditional positive regard, or
unconditional love. According to Rogers (1980), “As persons are accepted
and prized, they tend to develop a more caring attitude towards
themselves” (p. 116). Conversely, when there is a great discrepancy
between our ideal and actual selves, we experience a state Rogers called
incongruence{: data-type=“term”}, which can lead to maladjustment.
Both Rogers’s and Maslow’s theories focus on individual choices and do
not believe that biology is deterministic.
Humanistic psychologists Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers focused on the
growth potential of healthy individuals. They believed that people
strive to become self-actualized. Both Rogers’s and Maslow’s theories
greatly contributed to our understanding of the self. They emphasized
free will and self-determination, with each individual desiring to
become the best person they can become.
Question
Self-concept refers to ________.
our level of confidence in our own abilities
all of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves
the belief that we control our own outcomes
the belief that our outcomes are outside of our control {:
type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The idea that people’s ideas about themselves should match their
actions is called ________.
Respond to the question, “Who am I?” Based on your response, do
you have a negative or a positive self-concept? What are some
experiences that led you to develop this particular self-concept?
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If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Humans are diverse, and sometimes our differences make it challenging
for us to get along with one another. A poignant example is that of
Trayvon Martin, a 17-year-old
African American who was shot by a neighborhood watch volunteer, George
**Zimmerman**, in a predominantly
White neighborhood in 2012. Zimmerman grew suspicious of the boy dressed
in a hoodie and pursued Martin. A physical altercation ended with
Zimmerman fatally shooting Martin. Zimmerman claimed that he acted in
self-defense; Martin was unarmed. A Florida jury found Zimmerman not
guilty of second degree murder nor of manslaughter.
Several groups protested what they deemed racial profiling and brutality
against an unarmed Black male. Zimmerman, who has a Peruvian mother and
a German father, was accused of being racist. Some media coverage was
criticized for inflaming racial politics in their coverage. In spite of
conflicts such as these, people also to work together to create positive
change. For example, after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, people rallied
together and charitable donations skyrocket (Brown & Minty, 2006). This
chapter explores how the presence of other people influences the
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define social
psychology * Describe situational versus dispositional influences on
behavior * Describe the fundamental attribution error
Social psychology{: data-type=“term”} examines how people affect
one another, and it looks at the power of the situation. Social
psychologists assert that an individual’s thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors are very much influenced by social situations. Essentially,
people will change their behavior to align with the social situation at
hand. If we are in a new situation or are unsure how to behave, we will
take our cues from other individuals.
The field of social psychology studies topics at both the intra- and
interpersonal levels. Intrapersonal{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} topics (those that pertain to the individual) include
emotions and attitudes, the self, and social cognition (the ways in
which we think about ourselves and others). Interpersonal{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} topics (those that pertain to dyads and
groups) include helping behavior
([link]), aggression, prejudice and
discrimination, attraction and close relationships, and group processes
and intergroup relationships.
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_01_helping}
Social psychologists focus on how people construe or interpret
situations and how these interpretations influence their thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors (Ross & Nisbett, 1991). Thus, social psychology
studies individuals in a social context and how situational variables
interact to influence behavior. In this chapter, we discuss the
intrapersonal processes of self-presentation, cognitive dissonance and
attitude change, and the interpersonal processes of conformity and
obedience, aggression and altruism, and, finally, love and attraction.
Behavior is a product of both the situation (e.g., cultural influences,
social roles, and the presence of bystanders) and of the person (e.g.,
personality characteristics). Subfields of psychology tend to focus on
one influence or behavior over others. Situationism{:
data-type=“term”} is the view that our behavior and actions are
determined by our immediate environment and surroundings. In contrast,
dispositionism{: data-type=“term”} holds that our behavior is
determined by internal factors (Heider, 1958). An internal
factor{: data-type=“term”} is an attribute of a person and includes
personality traits and temperament. Social psychologists have tended to
take the situationist perspective, whereas personality psychologists
have promoted the dispositionist perspective. Modern approaches to
social psychology, however, take both the situation and the individual
into account when studying human behavior (Fiske, Gilbert, & Lindzey,
2010). In fact, the field of social-personality psychology has emerged
to study the complex interaction of internal and situational factors
that affect human behavior (Mischel, 1977; Richard, Bond, &
Stokes-Zoota, 2003).
In the United States, the predominant culture tends to favor a
dispositional approach in explaining human behavior. Why do you think
this is? We tend to think that people are in control of their own
behaviors, and, therefore, any behavior change must be due to something
internal, such as their personality, habits, or temperament. According
to some social psychologists, people tend to overemphasize internal
factors as explanations—or attributions—for the behavior of other
people. They tend to assume that the behavior of another person is a
trait of that person, and to underestimate the power of the situation
on the behavior of others. They tend to fail to recognize when the
behavior of another is due to situational variables, and thus to the
person’s state. This erroneous assumption is called the fundamental
attribution error{: data-type=“term”} (Ross, 1977; Riggio & Garcia,
2009). To better understand, imagine this scenario: Greg returns home
from work, and upon opening the front door his wife happily greets him
and inquires about his day. Instead of greeting his wife, Greg yells at
her, “Leave me alone!” Why did Greg yell at his wife? How would someone
committing the fundamental attribution error explain Greg’s behavior?
The most common response is that Greg is a mean, angry, or unfriendly
person (his traits). This is an internal or dispositional explanation.
However, imagine that Greg was just laid off from his job due to company
downsizing. Would your explanation for Greg’s behavior change? Your
revised explanation might be that Greg was frustrated and disappointed
for losing his job; therefore, he was in a bad mood (his state). This is
now an external or situational explanation for Greg’s behavior.
The fundamental attribution error is so powerful that people often
overlook obvious situational influences on behavior. A classic example
was demonstrated in a series of experiments known as the quizmaster
study (Ross, Amabile, & Steinmetz, 1977). Student participants were
randomly assigned to play the role of a questioner (the quizmaster) or a
contestant in a quiz game. Questioners developed difficult questions to
which they knew the answers, and they presented these questions to the
contestants. The contestants answered the questions correctly only 4 out
of 10 times ([link]). After the task,
the questioners and contestants were asked to rate their own general
knowledge compared to the average student. Questioners did not rate
their general knowledge higher than the contestants, but the contestants
rated the questioners’ intelligence higher than their own. In a second
study, observers of the interaction also rated the questioner as having
more general knowledge than the contestant. The obvious influence on
performance is the situation. The questioners wrote the questions, so of
course they had an advantage. Both the contestants and observers made an
internal attribution for the performance. They concluded that the
questioners must be more intelligent than the contestants.
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_01_quizshow}
As demonstrated in the example above, the fundamental attribution error
is considered a powerful influence in how we explain the behaviors of
others. However, it should be noted that some researchers have suggested
that the fundamental attribution error may not be as powerful as it is
often portrayed. In fact, a recent review of more than 173 published
studies suggests that several factors (e.g., high levels of idiosyncrasy
of the character and how well hypothetical events are explained) play a
role in determining just how influential the fundamental attribution
error is (Malle, 2006).
You may be able to think of examples of the fundamental attribution
error in your life. Do people in all cultures commit the fundamental
attribution error? Research suggests that they do not. People from an
individualistic culture{: data-type=“term”}, that is, a culture
that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy, have the greatest
tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error. Individualistic
cultures, which tend to be found in western countries such as the United
States, Canada, and the United Kingdom, promote a focus on the
individual. Therefore, a person’s disposition is thought to be the
primary explanation for her behavior. In contrast, people from a
collectivistic culture{: data-type=“term”}, that is, a culture
that focuses on communal relationships with others, such as family,
friends, and community ([link]), are
less likely to commit the fundamental attribution error (Markus &
Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 2001).
{: #CNX_Psych_12_01_cultures}
Why do you think this is the case? Collectivistic cultures, which tend
to be found in east Asian countries and in Latin American and African
countries, focus on the group more than on the individual (Nisbett,
Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001). This focus on others provides a broader
perspective that takes into account both situational and cultural
influences on behavior; thus, a more nuanced explanation of the causes
of others’ behavior becomes more likely. [link]
summarizes compares individualistic and collectivist cultures.
Characteristics of Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures
Returning to our earlier example, Greg knew that he lost his job, but an
observer would not know. So a naïve observer would tend to attribute
Greg’s hostile behavior to Greg’s disposition rather than to the true,
situational cause. Why do you think we underestimate the influence of
the situation on the behaviors of others? One reason is that we often
don’t have all the information we need to make a situational explanation
for another person’s behavior. The only information we might have is
what is observable. Due to this lack of information we have a tendency
to assume the behavior is due to a dispositional, or internal, factor.
When it comes to explaining our own behaviors, however, we have much
more information available to us. If you came home from school or work
angry and yelled at your dog or a loved one, what would your explanation
be? You might say you were very tired or feeling unwell and needed quiet
time—a situational explanation. The actor-observer bias{:
data-type=“term”} is the phenomenon of attributing other people’s
behavior to internal factors (fundamental attribution error) while
attributing our own behavior to situational forces (Jones & Nisbett,
1971; Nisbett, Caputo, Legant, & Marecek, 1973; Choi & Nisbett, 1998).
As actors of behavior, we have more information available to explain our
own behavior. However as observers, we have less information available;
therefore, we tend to default to a dispositionist perspective.
One study on the actor-observer bias investigated reasons male
participants gave for why they liked their girlfriend (Nisbett et al.,
1973). When asked why participants liked their own girlfriend,
participants focused on internal, dispositional qualities of their
girlfriends (for example, her pleasant personality). The participants’
explanations rarely included causes internal to themselves, such as
dispositional traits (for example, “I need companionship.”). In
contrast, when speculating why a male friend likes his girlfriend,
participants were equally likely to give dispositional and external
explanations. This supports the idea that actors tend to provide few
internal explanations but many situational explanations for their own
behavior. In contrast, observers tend to provide more dispositional
explanations for a friend’s behavior
([link]).
Following an outcome, self-serving bias are those attributions that
enable us to see ourselves in favorable light (for example, making
internal attributions for success and external attributions for
failures). When you do well at a task, for example acing an exam, it is
in your best interest to make a dispositional attribution for your
behavior (“I’m smart,”) instead of a situational one (“The exam was
easy,”). The tendency of an individual to take credit by making
dispositional or internal attributions for positive outcomes but
situational or external attributions for negative outcomes is known as
the self-serving bias{: data-type=“term”} (Miller & Ross, 1975).
This bias serves to protect self-esteem. You can imagine that if people
always made situational attributions for their behavior, they would
never be able to take credit and feel good about their accomplishments.
We can understand self-serving bias by digging more deeply into
attribution{: data-type=“term”}, a belief about the cause of a
result. One model of attribution proposes three main dimensions: locus
of control (internal versus external), stability (stable versus
unstable), and controllability (controllable versus uncontrollable). In
this context, stability refers the extent to which the circumstances
that result in a given outcome are changeable. The circumstances are
considered stable if they are unlikely to change. Controllability refers
to the extent to which the circumstances that are associated with a
given outcome can be controlled. Obviously, those things that we have
the power to control would be labeled controllable (Weiner, 1979).
Consider the example of how we explain our favorite sports team’s wins.
Research shows that we make internal, stable, and controllable
attributions for our team’s victory
([link]) (Grove, Hanrahan, & McInman,
1991). For example, we might tell ourselves that our team is talented
(internal), consistently works hard (stable), and uses effective
strategies (controllable). In contrast, we are more likely to make
external, unstable, and uncontrollable attributions when our favorite
team loses. For example, we might tell ourselves that the other team has
more experienced players or that the referees were unfair (external),
the other team played at home (unstable), and the cold weather affected
our team’s performance (uncontrollable).
One consequence of westerners’ tendency to provide dispositional
explanations for behavior is victim blame (Jost & Major, 2001). When
people experience bad fortune, others tend to assume that they somehow
are responsible for their own fate. A common ideology, or worldview, in
the United States is the just-world hypothesis. The just-world
hypothesis{: data-type=“term”} is the belief that people get the
outcomes they deserve (Lerner & Miller, 1978). In order to maintain the
belief that the world is a fair place, people tend to think that good
people experience positive outcomes, and bad people experience negative
outcomes (Jost, Banaji, & Nosek, 2004; Jost & Major, 2001). The ability
to think of the world as a fair place, where people get what they
deserve, allows us to feel that the world is predictable and that we
have some control over our life outcomes (Jost et al., 2004; Jost &
Major, 2001). For example, if you want to experience positive outcomes,
you just need to work hard to get ahead in life.
Can you think of a negative consequence of the just-world hypothesis?
One negative consequence is people’s tendency to blame poor individuals
for their plight. What common explanations are given for why people live
in poverty? Have you heard statements such as, “The poor are lazy and
just don’t want to work” or “Poor people just want to live off the
government”? What types of explanations are these, dispositional or
situational? These dispositional explanations are clear examples of the
fundamental attribution error. Blaming poor people for their poverty
ignores situational factors that impact them, such as high unemployment
rates, recession, poor educational opportunities, and the familial cycle
of poverty ([link]). Other research
shows that people who hold just-world beliefs have negative attitudes
toward people who are unemployed and people living with AIDS (Sutton &
Douglas, 2005). In the United States and other countries, victims of
sexual assault may find themselves blamed for their abuse. Victim
advocacy groups, such as Domestic Violence Ended (DOVE), attend court in
support of victims to ensure that blame is directed at the perpetrators
of sexual violence, not the victims.
Social psychology is the subfield of psychology that studies the power
of the situation to influence individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors. Psychologists categorize the causes of human behavior as
those due to internal factors, such as personality, or those due to
external factors, such as cultural and other social influences. Behavior
is better explained, however, by using both approaches. Lay people tend
to over-rely on dispositional explanations for behavior and ignore the
power of situational influences, a perspective called the fundamental
attribution error. People from individualistic cultures are more likely
to display this bias versus people from collectivistic cultures. Our
explanations for our own and others behaviors can be biased due to not
having enough information about others’ motivations for behaviors and by
providing explanations that bolster our self-esteem.
Question
As a field, social psychology focuses on ________ in predicting
human behavior.
personality traits
genetic predispositions
biological forces
situational factors {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Making internal attributions for your successes and making
external attributions for your failures is an example of
________.
actor-observer bias
fundamental attribution error
self-serving bias
just-world hypothesis {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Collectivistic cultures are to ________ as individualistic
cultures are to ________.
Compare and contrast situational influences and dispositional
influences and give an example of each. Explain how situational
influences and dispositional influences might explain
inappropriate behavior.
A situationism view is that our behaviors are determined by the
situation—for example, a person who is late for work claims that
heavy traffic caused the delay. A dispositional view is that our
behaviors are determined by personality traits—for example, a
driver in a road rage incident claims the driver who cut her off
is an aggressive person. Thus, a situational view tends to provide
an excuse for inappropriate behavior, and a dispositional view
tends to lay blame for inappropriate behavior.
Provide an example of how people from individualistic and
collectivistic cultures would differ in explaining why they won an
important sporting event.
People from individualistic cultures would tend to attribute
athletic success to individual hard work and ability. People from
collectivistic cultures would tend attribute athletic success to
the team working together and the support and encouragement of the
coach.
Provide a personal example of an experience in which your behavior
was influenced by the power of the situation.
Think of an example in the media of a sports figure—player or
coach—who gives a self-serving attribution for winning or losing.
Examples might include accusing the referee of incorrect calls, in
the case of losing, or citing their own hard work and talent, in
the case of winning.
describes a perspective common to personality psychologists, which
asserts that our behavior is determined by internal factors, such
as personality traits and temperament ^
tendency for individuals to take credit by making dispositional or
internal attributions for positive outcomes and situational or
external attributions for negative outcomes ^
describes a perspective that behavior and actions are determined
by the immediate environment and surroundings; a view promoted by
social psychologists ^
field of psychology that examines how people impact or affect each
other, with particular focus on the power of the situation
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe social
roles and how they influence behavior * Explain what social norms
are and how they influence behavior * Define script * Describe the
findings of Zimbardo’s Stanford prison experiment
As you’ve learned, social psychology is the study of how people affect
one another’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. We have discussed
situational perspectives and social psychology’s emphasis on the ways in
which a person’s environment, including culture and other social
influences, affect behavior. In this section, we examine situational
forces that have a strong influence on human behavior including social
roles, social norms, and scripts. We discuss how humans use the social
environment as a source of information, or cues, on how to behave.
Situational influences on our behavior have important consequences, such
as whether we will help a stranger in an emergency or how we would
behave in an unfamiliar environment.
One major social determinant of human behavior is our social roles. A
social role{: data-type=“term”} is a pattern of behavior that is
expected of a person in a given setting or group (Hare, 2003). Each one
of us has several social roles. You may be, at the same time, a student,
a parent, an aspiring teacher, a son or daughter, a spouse, and a
lifeguard. How do these social roles influence your behavior? Social
roles are defined by culturally shared knowledge. That is, nearly
everyone in a given culture knows what behavior is expected of a person
in a given role. For example, what is the social role for a student? If
you look around a college classroom you will likely see students
engaging in studious behavior, taking notes, listening to the professor,
reading the textbook, and sitting quietly at their desks
([link]). Of course you may see
students deviating from the expected studious behavior such as texting
on their phones or using Facebook on their laptops, but in all cases,
the students that you observe are attending class—a part of the social
role of students.
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_02_classroom}
Social roles, and our related behavior, can vary across different
settings. How do you behave when you are engaging in the role of son or
daughter and attending a family function? Now imagine how you behave
when you are engaged in the role of employee at your workplace. It is
very likely that your behavior will be different. Perhaps you are more
relaxed and outgoing with your family, making jokes and doing silly
things. But at your workplace you might speak more professionally, and
although you may be friendly, you are also serious and focused on
getting the work completed. These are examples of how our social roles
influence and often dictate our behavior to the extent that identity and
personality can vary with context (that is, in different social groups)
(Malloy, Albright, Kenny, Agatstein & Winquist, 1997).
As discussed previously, social roles are defined by a culture’s shared
knowledge of what is expected behavior of an individual in a specific
role. This shared knowledge comes from social norms. A social
norm{: data-type=“term”} is a group’s expectation of what is
appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members—how they are
supposed to behave and think (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955; Berkowitz, 2004).
How are we expected to act? What are we expected to talk about? What are
we expected to wear? In our discussion of social roles we noted that
colleges have social norms for students’ behavior in the role of student
and workplaces have social norms for employees’ behaviors in the role of
employee. Social norms are everywhere including in families, gangs, and
on social media outlets. What are some social norms on Facebook?
Tweens, Teens, and Social Norms
My 11-year-old daughter, Jessica, recently told me she needed shorts
and shirts for the summer, and that she wanted me to take her to a
store at the mall that is popular with preteens and teens to buy
them. I have noticed that many girls have clothes from that store, so
I tried teasing her. I said, “All the shirts say ‘Aero’ on the front.
If you are wearing a shirt like that and you have a substitute
teacher, and the other girls are all wearing that type of shirt,
won’t the substitute teacher think you are all named ‘Aero’?”
My daughter replied, in typical 11-year-old fashion, “Mom, you are
not funny. Can we please go shopping?”
I tried a different tactic. I asked Jessica if having clothing from
that particular store will make her popular. She replied, “No, it
will not make me popular. It is what the popular kids wear. It will
make me feel happier.” How can a label or name brand make someone
feel happier? Think back to what you’ve learned about lifespan
developmentpastehere. What is it about
pre-teens and young teens that make them want to fit in
([link])? Does this change over time?
Think back to your high school experience, or look around your
college campus. What is the main name brand clothing you see? What
messages do we get from the media about how to fit in?
Because of social roles, people tend to know what behavior is expected
of them in specific, familiar settings. A script{:
data-type=“term”} is a person’s knowledge about the sequence of events
expected in a specific setting (Schank & Abelson, 1977). How do you act
on the first day of school, when you walk into an elevator, or are at a
restaurant? For example, at a restaurant in the United States, if we
want the server’s attention, we try to make eye contact. In Brazil, you
would make the sound “psst” to get the server’s attention. You can see
the cultural differences in scripts. To an American, saying “psst” to a
server might seem rude, yet to a Brazilian, trying to make eye contact
might not seem an effective strategy. Scripts are important sources of
information to guide behavior in given situations. Can you imagine being
in an unfamiliar situation and not having a script for how to behave?
This could be uncomfortable and confusing. How could you find out about
social norms in an unfamiliar culture?
The famous Stanford prison experiment{: data-type=“term”},
conducted by social psychologist Philip Zimbardo{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} and his colleagues at Stanford
University, demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and
scripts. In the summer of 1971, an advertisement was placed in a
California newspaper asking for male volunteers to participate in a
study about the psychological effects of prison life. More than 70 men
volunteered, and these volunteers then underwent psychological testing
to eliminate candidates who had underlying psychiatric issues, medical
issues, or a history of crime or drug abuse. The pool of volunteers was
whittled down to 24 healthy male college students. Each student was paid
$15 per day and was randomly assigned to play the role of either a
prisoner or a guard in the study. Based on what you have learned about
research methods, why is it important that participants were randomly
assigned?
A mock prison was constructed in the basement of the psychology building
at Stanford. Participants assigned to play the role of prisoners were
“arrested” at their homes by Palo Alto police officers, booked at a
police station, and subsequently taken to the mock prison. The
experiment was scheduled to run for several weeks. To the surprise of
the researchers, both the “prisoners” and “guards” assumed their roles
with zeal. In fact, on day 2, some of the prisoners revolted, and the
guards quelled the rebellion by threatening the prisoners with night
sticks. In a relatively short time, the guards came to harass the
prisoners in an increasingly sadistic manner, through a complete lack of
privacy, lack of basic comforts such as mattresses to sleep on, and
through degrading chores and late-night counts.
The prisoners, in turn, began to show signs of severe anxiety and
hopelessness—they began tolerating the guards’ abuse. Even the Stanford
professor who designed the study and was the head researcher, Philip
Zimbardo, found himself acting as if the prison was real and his role,
as prison supervisor, was real as well. After only six days, the
experiment had to be ended due to the participants’ deteriorating
behavior. Zimbardo explained,
At this point it became clear that we had to end the study. We had
created an overwhelmingly powerful situation—a situation in which
prisoners were withdrawing and behaving in pathological ways, and in
which some of the guards were behaving sadistically. Even the “good”
guards felt helpless to intervene, and none of the guards quit while
the study was in progress. Indeed, it should be noted that no guard
ever came late for his shift, called in sick, left early, or demanded
extra pay for overtime work. (Zimbardo, 2013) {: display=“block”}
The Stanford prison experiment demonstrated the power of social roles,
norms, and scripts in affecting human behavior. The guards and prisoners
enacted their social roles by engaging in behaviors appropriate to the
roles: The guards gave orders and the prisoners followed orders. Social
norms require guards to be authoritarian and prisoners to be submissive.
When prisoners rebelled, they violated these social norms, which led to
upheaval. The specific acts engaged by the guards and the prisoners
derived from scripts. For example, guards degraded the prisoners by
forcing them do push-ups and by removing all privacy. Prisoners rebelled
by throwing pillows and trashing their cells. Some prisoners became so
immersed in their roles that they exhibited symptoms of mental
breakdown; however, according to Zimbardo, none of the participants
suffered long term harm (Alexander, 2001).
The Stanford Prison Experiment has some parallels with the abuse of
prisoners of war by U.S. Army troops and CIA personnel at the Abu Ghraib
prison in 2003 and 2004. The offenses at Abu Ghraib{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} were documented by photographs of the
abuse, some taken by the abusers themselves
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_12_02_AbuGhraib}
See also
Visit this website to hear
an NPR interview with Philip Zimbardo{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} where he discusses the parallels between the Stanford
prison experiment and the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq.
Human behavior is largely influenced by our social roles, norms, and
scripts. In order to know how to act in a given situation, we have
shared cultural knowledge of how to behave depending on our role in
society. Social norms dictate the behavior that is appropriate or
inappropriate for each role. Each social role has scripts that help
humans learn the sequence of appropriate behaviors in a given setting.
The famous Stanford prison experiment is an example of how the power of
the situation can dictate the social roles, norms, and scripts we follow
in a given situation, even if this behavior is contrary to our typical
behavior.
Question
A(n) ________ is a set of group expectations for appropriate
thoughts and behaviors of its members.
social role
social norm
script
attribution {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
On his first day of soccer practice, Jose suits up in a t-shirt,
shorts, and cleats and runs out to the field to join his
teammates. Jose’s behavior is reflective of ________.
a script
social influence
good athletic behavior
normative behavior {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
When it comes to buying clothes, teenagers often follow social
norms; this is likely motivated by ________.
following parents’ rules
saving money
fitting in
looking good {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
In the Stanford prison experiment, even the lead researcher
succumbed to his role as a prison supervisor. This is an example
of the power of ________ influencing behavior.
Why didn’t the “good” guards in the Stanford prison experiment
object to other guards’ abusive behavior? Were the student
prisoners simply weak people? Why didn’t they object to being
abused?
The good guards were fulfilling their social roles and they did
not object to other guards’ abusive behavior because of the power
of the situation. In addition, the prison supervisor’s behavior
sanctioned the guards’ negative treatment of prisoners. The
prisoners were not weak people; they were recruited because they
were healthy, mentally stable adults. The power of their social
role influenced them to engage in subservient prisoner behavior.
The script for prisoners is to accept abusive behavior from
authority figures, especially for punishment, when they do not
follow the rules.
Describe how social roles, social norms, and scripts were evident
in the Stanford prison experiment. How can this experiment be
applied to everyday life? Are there any more recent examples where
people started fulfilling a role and became abusive?
Social roles were in play as each participant acted out behaviors
appropriate to his role as prisoner, guard, or supervisor. Scripts
determined the specific behaviors the guards and prisoners
displayed, such as humiliation and passivity. The social norms of
a prison environment sanctions abuse of prisoners since they have
lost many of their human rights and became the property of the
government. This experiment can be applied to other situations in
which social norms, roles, and scripts dictate our behavior, such
as in mob behavior. A more recent example of similar behavior was
the abuse of prisoners by American soldiers who were working as
prison guards at the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq.
Try attending a religious service very different from your own and
see how you feel and behave without knowing the appropriate
script. Or, try attending an important, personal event that you
have never attended before, such as a bar mitzvah (a coming-of-age
ritual in Jewish culture), a quinceañera (in some Latin American
cultures a party is given to a girl who is turning 15 years old),
a wedding, a funeral, or a sporting event new to you, such as
horse racing or bull riding. Observe and record your feelings and
behaviors in this unfamiliar setting for which you lack the
appropriate script. Do you silently observe the action, or do you
ask another person for help interpreting the behaviors of people
at the event? Describe in what ways your behavior would change if
you were to attend a similar event in the future?
Name and describe at least three social roles you have adopted for
yourself. Why did you adopt these roles? What are some roles that
are expected of you, but that you try to resist?
Stanford University conducted an experiment in a mock prison that
demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define attitude
* Describe how people’s attitudes are internally changed through
cognitive dissonance * Explain how people’s attitudes are externally
changed through persuasion * Describe the peripheral and central
routes to persuasion
Social psychologists have documented how the power of the situation can
influence our behaviors. Now we turn to how the power of the situation
can influence our attitudes and beliefs. Attitude{:
data-type=“term”} is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object.
We have attitudes for many things ranging from products that we might
pick up in the supermarket to people around the world to political
policies. Typically, attitudes are favorable or unfavorable: positive or
negative (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993). And, they have three components: an
affective component (feelings), a behavioral component (the effect of
the attitude on behavior), and a cognitive component (belief and
knowledge) (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960).
For example, you may hold a positive attitude toward recycling. This
attitude should result in positive feelings toward recycling (such as
“It makes me feel good to recycle” or “I enjoy knowing that I make a
small difference in reducing the amount of waste that ends up in
landfills”). Certainly, this attitude should be reflected in our
behavior: You actually recycle as often as you can. Finally, this
attitude will be reflected in favorable thoughts (for example,
“Recycling is good for the environment” or “Recycling is the responsible
thing to do”).
Our attitudes and beliefs are not only influenced by external forces,
but also by internal influences that we control. Like our behavior, our
attitudes and thoughts are not always changed by situational pressures,
but they can be consciously changed by our own free will. In this
section we discuss the conditions under which we would want to change
our own attitudes and beliefs.
Social psychologists have documented that feeling good about ourselves
and maintaining positive self-esteem is a powerful motivator of human
behavior (Tavris & Aronson, 2008). In the United States, members of the
predominant culture typically think very highly of themselves and view
themselves as good people who are above average on many desirable traits
(Ehrlinger, Gilovich, & Ross, 2005). Often, our behavior, attitudes, and
beliefs are affected when we experience a threat to our self-esteem or
positive self-image. Psychologist Leon Festinger (1957) defined
cognitive dissonance{: data-type=“term”} as psychological
discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent attitudes,
behaviors, or cognitions (thoughts, beliefs, or opinions). Festinger’s
theory of cognitive dissonance states that when we experience a conflict
in our behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to our
positive self-perceptions, we experience psychological discomfort
(dissonance). For example, if you believe smoking is bad for your health
but you continue to smoke, you experience conflict between your belief
and behavior ([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_03_dissonance}
Later research documented that only conflicting cognitions that threaten
individuals’ positive self-image cause dissonance (Greenwald & Ronis,
1978). Additional research found that dissonance is not only
psychologically uncomfortable but also can cause physiological arousal
(Croyle & Cooper, 1983) and activate regions of the brain important in
emotions and cognitive functioning (van Veen, Krug, Schooler, & Carter,
2009). When we experience cognitive dissonance, we are motivated to
decrease it because it is psychologically, physically, and mentally
uncomfortable. We can reduce cognitive dissonance{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} by bringing our cognitions, attitudes,
and behaviors in line—that is, making them harmonious. This can be done
in different ways, such as:
changing our cognitions through rationalization or denial (e.g.,
telling ourselves that health risks can be reduced by smoking
filtered cigarettes),
adding a new cognition (e.g., “Smoking suppresses my appetite so I
don’t become overweight, which is good for my health.”).
A classic example of cognitive dissonance is John, a 20-year-old who
enlists in the military. During boot camp he is awakened at 5:00 a.m.,
is chronically sleep deprived, yelled at, covered in sand flea bites,
physically bruised and battered, and mentally exhausted
([link]). It gets worse. Recruits that
make it to week 11 of boot camp have to do 54 hours of continuous
training.
{: #CNX_Psych_12_03_marines}
Not surprisingly, John is miserable. No one likes to be miserable. In
this type of situation, people can change their beliefs, their
attitudes, or their behaviors. The last option, a change of behaviors,
is not available to John. He has signed on to the military for four
years, and he cannot legally leave.
If John keeps thinking about how miserable he is, it is going to be a
very long four years. He will be in a constant state of cognitive
dissonance. As an alternative to this misery, John can change his
beliefs or attitudes. He can tell himself, “I am becoming stronger,
healthier, and sharper. I am learning discipline and how to defend
myself and my country. What I am doing is really important.” If this is
his belief, he will realize that he is becoming stronger through his
challenges. He then will feel better and not experience cognitive
dissonance, which is an uncomfortable state.
The military example demonstrates the observation that a difficult
initiationpastehere into a group
influences us to like the group more, due to the justification of
effort. We do not want to have wasted time and effort to join a group
that we eventually leave. A classic experiment by Aronson and Mills
(1959) demonstrated this justification of effort effect. College
students volunteered to join a campus group that would meet regularly to
discuss the psychology of sex. Participants were randomly assigned to
one of three conditions: no initiation, an easy initiation, and a
difficult initiation into the group. After participating in the first
discussion, which was deliberately made very boring, participants rated
how much they liked the group. Participants who underwent a difficult
initiation process to join the group rated the group more favorably than
did participants with an easy initiation or no initiation
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_12_03_justification}
Similar effects can be seen in a more recent study of how student effort
affects course evaluations. Heckert, Latier, Ringwald-Burton, and Drazen
(2006) surveyed 463 undergraduates enrolled in courses at a midwestern
university about the amount of effort that their courses required of
them. In addition, the students were also asked to evaluate various
aspects of the course. Given what you’ve just read, it will come as no
surprise that those courses that were associated with the highest level
of effort were evaluated as being more valuable than those that did not.
Furthermore, students indicated that they learned more in courses that
required more effort, regardless of the grades that they received in
those courses (Heckert et al., 2006).
Besides the classic military example and group initiation, can you think
of other examples of cognitive dissonance{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis}? Here is one: Marco and Maria live in Fairfield County,
Connecticut, which is one of the wealthiest areas in the United States
and has a very high cost of living. Marco telecommutes from home and
Maria does not work outside of the home. They rent a very small house
for more than $3000 a month. Maria shops at consignment stores for
clothes and economizes where she can. They complain that they never have
any money and that they cannot buy anything new. When asked why they do
not move to a less expensive location, since Marco telecommutes, they
respond that Fairfield County is beautiful, they love the beaches, and
they feel comfortable there. How does the theory of cognitive dissonance
apply to Marco and Maria’s choices?
In the previous section we discussed that the motivation to reduce
cognitive dissonance leads us to change our attitudes, behaviors, and/or
cognitions to make them consonant. Persuasion{: data-type=“term”}
is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some
kind of communication. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from
outside forces. How do people convince others to change their attitudes,
beliefs, and behaviors ([link])? What
communications do you receive that attempt to persuade you to change
your attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors?
{: #CNX_Psych_12_03_persuasion}
A subfield of social psychology studies persuasion and social influence,
providing us with a plethora of information on how humans can be
persuaded by others.
The topic of persuasion has been one of the most extensively researched
areas in social psychology (Fiske et al., 2010). During the Second World
War, Carl Hovlandpastehere extensively
researched persuasion for the U.S. Army. After the war, Hovland
continued his exploration of persuasion at Yale University. Out of this
work came a model called the Yale attitude change approach{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}, which describes the conditions under
which people tend to change their attitudes. Hovland demonstrated that
certain features of the source of a persuasive message, the content of
the message, and the characteristics of the audience will influence the
persuasiveness of a message (Hovland, Janis, & Kelley, 1953).
Features of the source of the persuasive message include the credibility
of the speaker (Hovland & Weiss, 1951) and the physical attractiveness
of the speaker (Eagly & Chaiken, 1975; Petty, Wegener, & Fabrigar,
1997). Thus, speakers who are credible, or have expertise on the topic,
and who are deemed as trustworthy are more persuasive than less credible
speakers. Similarly, more attractive speakers are more persuasive than
less attractive speakers. The use of famous actors and athletes to
advertise products on television and in print relies on this principle.
The immediate and long term impact of the persuasion also depends,
however, on the credibility of the messenger (Kumkale & Albarracín,
2004).
Features of the message itself that affect persuasion include subtlety
(the quality of being important, but not obvious) (Petty & Cacioppo,
1986; Walster & Festinger, 1962); sidedness (that is, having more than
one side) (Crowley & Hoyer, 1994; Igou & Bless, 2003; Lumsdaine & Janis,
1953); timing (Haugtvedt & Wegener, 1994; Miller & Campbell, 1959), and
whether both sides are presented. Messages that are more subtle are more
persuasive than direct messages. Arguments that occur first, such as in
a debate, are more influential if messages are given back-to-back.
However, if there is a delay after the first message, and before the
audience needs to make a decision, the last message presented will tend
to be more persuasive (Miller & Campbell, 1959).
Features of the audience that affect persuasion are attention
(Albarracín & Wyer, 2001; Festinger & Maccoby, 1964), intelligence,
self-esteem (Rhodes & Wood, 1992), and age (Krosnick & Alwin, 1989). In
order to be persuaded, audience members must be paying attention. People
with lower intelligence are more easily persuaded than people with
higher intelligence; whereas people with moderate self-esteem are more
easily persuaded than people with higher or lower self-esteem (Rhodes &
Wood, 1992). Finally, younger adults aged 18–25 are more persuadable
than older adults.
An especially popular model that describes the dynamics of persuasion is
the elaboration likelihood model of persuasion (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986).
The elaboration likelihood modelpastehere
considers the variables of the attitude change approach—that is,
features of the source of the persuasive message, contents of the
message, and characteristics of the audience are used to determine when
attitude change will occur. According to the elaboration likelihood
model of persuasion, there are two main routes that play a role in
delivering a persuasive message: central and peripheral
([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_03_Persuasion2}
The central route{: data-type=“term”} is logic driven and uses
data and facts to convince people of an argument’s worthiness. For
example, a car company seeking to persuade you to purchase their model
will emphasize the car’s safety features and fuel economy. This is a
direct route to persuasion that focuses on the quality of the
information. In order for the central route of persuasion to be
effective in changing attitudes, thoughts, and behaviors, the argument
must be strong and, if successful, will result in lasting attitude
change.
The central route to persuasion works best when the target of
persuasion, or the audience, is analytical and willing to engage in
processing of the information. From an advertiser’s perspective, what
products would be best sold using the central route to persuasion? What
audience would most likely be influenced to buy the product? One example
is buying a computer. It is likely, for example, that small business
owners might be especially influenced by the focus on the computer’s
quality and features such as processing speed and memory capacity.
The peripheral route{: data-type=“term”} is an indirect route that
uses peripheral cues to associate positivity with the message (Petty &
Cacioppo, 1986). Instead of focusing on the facts and a product’s
quality, the peripheral route relies on association with positive
characteristics such as positive emotions and celebrity endorsement. For
example, having a popular athlete advertise athletic shoes is a common
method used to encourage young adults to purchase the shoes. This route
to attitude change does not require much effort or information
processing. This method of persuasion may promote positivity toward the
message or product, but it typically results in less permanent attitude
or behavior change. The audience does not need to be analytical or
motivated to process the message. In fact, a peripheral route to
persuasion may not even be noticed by the audience, for example in the
strategy of product placement. Product placement refers to putting a
product with a clear brand name or brand identity in a TV show or movie
to promote the product (Gupta & Lord, 1998). For example, one season of
the reality series American Idol prominently showed the panel of
judges drinking out of cups that displayed the Coca-Cola logo. What
other products would be best sold using the peripheral route to
persuasion? Another example is clothing: A retailer may focus on
celebrities that are wearing the same style of clothing.
Researchers have tested many persuasion strategies that are effective in
selling products and changing people’s attitude, ideas, and behaviors.
One effective strategy is the foot-in-the-door technique (Cialdini,
2001; Pliner, Hart, Kohl, & Saari, 1974). Using the foot-in-the-door
technique{: data-type=“term”}, the persuader gets a person to agree
to bestow a small favor or to buy a small item, only to later request a
larger favor or purchase of a bigger item. The foot-in-the-door
technique was demonstrated in a study by Freedman and Fraser (1966) in
which participants who agreed to post small sign in their yard or sign a
petition were more likely to agree to put a large sign in their yard
than people who declined the first request
([link]). Research on this technique also
illustrates the principle of consistency (Cialdini, 2001): Our past
behavior often directs our future behavior, and we have a desire to
maintain consistency once we have a committed to a behavior.
{: #CNX_Psych_12_03_signs}
A common application of foot-in-the-door is when teens ask their parents
for a small permission (for example, extending curfew by a half hour)
and then asking them for something larger. Having granted the smaller
request increases the likelihood that parents will acquiesce with the
later, larger request.
How would a store owner use the foot-in-the-door technique to sell you
an expensive product? For example, say that you are buying the latest
model smartphone, and the salesperson suggests you purchase the best
data plan. You agree to this. The salesperson then suggests a bigger
purchase—the three-year extended warranty. After agreeing to the smaller
request, you are more likely to also agree to the larger request. You
may have encountered this if you have bought a car. When salespeople
realize that a buyer intends to purchase a certain model, they might try
to get the customer to pay for many or most available options on the
car.
Attitudes are our evaluations or feelings toward a person, idea, or
object and typically are positive or negative. Our attitudes and beliefs
are influenced not only by external forces, but also by internal
influences that we control. An internal form of attitude change is
cognitive dissonance or the tension we experience when our thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors are in conflict. In order to reduce dissonance,
individuals can change their behavior, attitudes, or cognitions, or add
a new cognition. External forces of persuasion include advertising; the
features of advertising that influence our behaviors include the source,
message, and audience. There are two primary routes to persuasion. The
central route to persuasion uses facts and information to persuade
potential consumers. The peripheral route uses positive association with
cues such as beauty, fame, and positive emotions.
Question
Attitudes describe our ________ of people, objects, and ideas.
treatment
evaluations
cognitions
knowledge {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Cognitive dissonance causes discomfort because it disrupts our
sense of ________.
dependency
unpredictability
consistency
power {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
In order for the central route to persuasion to be effective, the
audience must be ________ and ________.
analytical; motivated
attentive; happy
intelligent; unemotional
gullible; distracted {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Examples of cues used in peripheral route persuasion include all
of the following except ________.
Give an example (one not used in class or your text) of
cognitive dissonance and how an individual might resolve this.
One example is choosing which college to attend—the public school
close to home or the Ivy League school out of state. Since both
schools are desirable, the student is likely to experience
cognitive dissonance in making this decision. In order to justify
choosing the public school close to home, the student could change
her cognition about Ivy League school, asserting that it is too
expensive and the quality of education at the public school is
just as good. She could change her attitude toward the Ivy League
school and determine that the students there are too stuffy and
wouldn’t make good classmates.
Imagine that you work for an advertising agency, and you’ve been
tasked with developing an advertising campaign to increase sales
of Bliss Soda. How would you develop an advertisement for this
product that uses a central route of persuasion? How would you
develop an ad using a peripheral route of persuasion?
Although potential answers will vary, advertisements using the
central route of persuasion might involve a doctor listing logical
reasons for drinking this product. For example, the doctor might
cite research suggesting that the soda is better than alternatives
because of its reduced calorie content, lack of adverse health
consequences, etc. An advertisement using a peripheral route of
persuasion might show very attractive people consuming the product
while spending time on a beautiful, sunny beach.
Cognitive dissonance often arises after making an important
decision, called post-decision dissonance (or in popular terms,
buyer’s remorse). Describe a recent decision you made that caused
dissonance and describe how you resolved it.
Describe a time when you or someone you know used the
foot-in-the-door technique to gain someone’s compliance.
psychological discomfort that arises from a conflict in a person’s
behaviors, attitudes, or beliefs that runs counter to one’s
positive self-perception ^
persuasion of one person by another person, encouraging a person
to agree to a small favor, or to buy a small item, only to later
request a larger favor or purchase of a larger item ^
one person persuades another person; an indirect route that relies
on association of peripheral cues (such as positive emotions and
celebrity endorsement) to associate positivity with a message ^
process of changing our attitude toward something based on some
form of communication
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the Asch
effect * Define conformity and types of social influence * Describe
Stanley Milgram’s experiment and its implications * Define
groupthink, social facilitation, and social loafing
In this section, we discuss additional ways in which people influence
others. The topics of conformity, social influence, obedience, and group
processes demonstrate the power of the social situation to change our
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. We begin this section with a
discussion of a famous social psychology experiment that demonstrated
how susceptible humans are to outside social pressures.
Solomon Aschpastehere conducted several
experiments in the 1950s to determine how people are affected by the
thoughts and behaviors of other people. In one study, a group of
participants was shown a series of printed line segments of different
lengths: a, b, and c ([link]). Participants
were then shown a fourth line segment: x. They were asked to identify
which line segment from the first group (a, b, or c) most closely
resembled the fourth line segment in length.
{: #CNX_Psych_12_04_Asch}
Each group of participants had only one true, naïve subject. The
remaining members of the group were confederates of the researcher. A
confederate{: data-type=“term”} is a person who is aware of the
experiment and works for the researcher. Confederates are used to
manipulate social situations as part of the research design, and the
true, naïve participants believe that confederates are, like them,
uninformed participants in the experiment. In Asch’s study, the
confederates identified a line segment that was obviously shorter than
the target line—a wrong answer. The naïve participant then had to
identify aloud the line segment that best matched the target line
segment.
How often do you think the true participant aligned with the
confederates’ response? That is, how often do you think the group
influenced the participant, and the participant gave the wrong answer?
Asch (1955) found that 76% of participants conformed to group pressure
at least once by indicating the incorrect line. Conformity{:
data-type=“term”} is the change in a person’s behavior to go along with
the group, even if he does not agree with the group. Why would people
give the wrong answer? What factors would increase or decrease someone
giving in or conforming to group pressure?
The Asch effect{: data-type=“term”} is the influence of the group
majority on an individual’s judgment.
What factors make a person more likely to yield to group pressure?
Research shows that the size of the majority, the presence of another
dissenter, and the public or relatively private nature of responses are
key influences on conformity.
The size of the majority: The greater the number of people in the
majority, the more likely an individual will conform. There is,
however, an upper limit: a point where adding more members does not
increase conformity. In Asch’s study, conformity increased with the
number of people in the majority—up to seven individuals. At numbers
beyond seven, conformity leveled off and decreased slightly (Asch,
1955).
The presence of another dissenter: If there is at least one
dissenter, conformity rates drop to near zero (Asch, 1955).
The public or private nature of the responses: When responses are
made publicly (in front of others), conformity is more likely;
however, when responses are made privately (e.g., writing down the
response), conformity is less likely (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955).
The finding that conformity is more likely to occur when responses are
public than when they are private is the reason government elections
require voting in secret, so we are not coerced by others
([link]). The Asch effect{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} can be easily seen in children when they
have to publicly vote for something. For example, if the teacher asks
whether the children would rather have extra recess, no homework, or
candy, once a few children vote, the rest will comply and go with the
majority. In a different classroom, the majority might vote differently,
and most of the children would comply with that majority. When someone’s
vote changes if it is made in public versus private, this is known as
compliance. Compliance can be a form of conformity. Compliance is going
along with a request or demand, even if you do not agree with the
request. In Asch’s studies, the participants complied by giving the
wrong answers, but privately did not accept that the obvious wrong
answers were correct.
{: #CNX_Psych_12_04_voting}
Now that you have learned about the Asch line experiments, why do you
think the participants conformed? The correct answer to the line segment
question was obvious, and it was an easy task. Researchers have
categorized the motivation to conform into two types: normative social
influence and informational social influence (Deutsch & Gerard, 1955).
In normative social influence{: data-type=“term”}, people conform
to the group norm to fit in, to feel good, and to be accepted by the
group. However, with informational social influence{:
data-type=“term”}, people conform because they believe the group is
competent and has the correct information, particularly when the task or
situation is ambiguous. What type of social influence was operating in
the Asch conformity studies? Since the line judgment task was
unambiguous, participants did not need to rely on the group for
information. Instead, participants complied to fit in and avoid
ridicule, an instance of normative social influence.
An example of informational social influence may be what to do in an
emergency situation. Imagine that you are in a movie theater watching a
film and what seems to be smoke comes in the theater from under the
emergency exit door. You are not certain that it is smoke—it might be a
special effect for the movie, such as a fog machine. When you are
uncertain you will tend to look at the behavior of others in the
theater. If other people show concern and get up to leave, you are
likely to do the same. However, if others seem unconcerned, you are
likely to stay put and continue watching the movie
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_12_04_audience}
How would you have behaved if you were a participant in Asch’s study?
Many students say they would not conform, that the study is outdated,
and that people nowadays are more independent. To some extent this may
be true. Research suggests that overall rates of conformity may have
reduced since the time of Asch’s research. Furthermore, efforts to
replicate Asch’s study have made it clear that many factors determine
how likely it is that someone will demonstrate conformity to the group.
These factors include the participant’s age, gender, and socio-cultural
background (Bond & Smith, 1996; Larsen, 1990; Walker & Andrade, 1996).
See also
Watch this video to see a
replication of the Asch experiment.
Conformity is one effect of the influence of others on our thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors. Another form of social influence is obedience
to authority. Obedience{: data-type=“term”} is the change of an
individual’s behavior to comply with a demand by an authority figure.
People often comply with the request because they are concerned about a
consequence if they do not comply. To demonstrate this phenomenon, we
review another classic social psychology experiment.
Stanley Milgrampastehere was a social
psychology professor at Yale who was influenced by the trial of Adolf
Eichmann, a Nazi war criminal. Eichmann’s defense for the atrocities he
committed was that he was “just following orders.” Milgram (1963) wanted
to test the validity of this defense, so he designed an experiment and
initially recruited 40 men for his experiment. The volunteer
participants were led to believe that they were participating in a study
to improve learning and memory. The participants were told that they
were to teach other students (learners) correct answers to a series of
test items. The participants were shown how to use a device that they
were told delivered electric shocks of different intensities to the
learners. The participants were told to shock the learners if they gave
a wrong answer to a test item—that the shock would help them to learn.
The participants gave (or believed they gave) the learners shocks, which
increased in 15-volt increments, all the way up to 450 volts. The
participants did not know that the learners were confederates and that
the confederates did not actually receive shocks.
In response to a string of incorrect answers from the learners, the
participants obediently and repeatedly shocked them. The confederate
learners cried out for help, begged the participant teachers to stop,
and even complained of heart trouble. Yet, when the researcher told the
participant-teachers to continue the shock, 65% of the participants
continued the shock to the maximum voltage and to the point that the
learner became unresponsive ([link]).
What makes someone obey authority to the point of potentially causing
serious harm to another person?
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_04_milgram}
Several variations of the original Milgram{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} experiment were conducted to test the boundaries of
obedience. When certain features of the situation were changed,
participants were less likely to continue to deliver shocks (Milgram,
1965). For example, when the setting of the experiment was moved to an
office building, the percentage of participants who delivered the
highest shock dropped to 48%. When the learner was in the same room as
the teacher, the highest shock rate dropped to 40%. When the teachers’
and learners’ hands were touching, the highest shock rate dropped to
30%. When the researcher gave the orders by phone, the rate dropped to
23%. These variations show that when the humanity of the person being
shocked was increased, obedience decreased. Similarly, when the
authority of the experimenter decreased, so did obedience.
This case is still very applicable today. What does a person do if an
authority figure orders something done? What if the person believes it
is incorrect, or worse, unethical? In a study by Martin and Bull (2008),
midwives privately filled out a questionnaire regarding best practices
and expectations in delivering a baby. Then, a more senior midwife and
supervisor asked the junior midwives to do something they had previously
stated they were opposed to. Most of the junior midwives were obedient
to authority, going against their own beliefs.
When in group settings, we are often influenced by the thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors around us. Whether it is due to normative or
informational social influence, groups have power to influence
individuals. Another phenomenon of group conformity is groupthink.
Groupthink{: data-type=“term”} is the modification of the opinions
of members of a group to align with what they believe is the group
consensus (Janis, 1972). In group situations, the group often takes
action that individuals would not perform outside the group setting
because groups make more extreme decisions than individuals do.
Moreover, groupthink can hinder opposing trains of thought. This
elimination of diverse opinions contributes to faulty decision by the
group.
Tip
Groupthink in the U.S. Government
There have been several instances of groupthink in the U.S.
government. One example occurred when the United States led a small
coalition of nations to invade Iraq in March 2003. This invasion
occurred because a small group of advisors and former President
George W. Bush were convinced that Iraq represented a significant
terrorism threat with a large stockpile of weapons of mass
destruction at its disposal. Although some of these individuals may
have had some doubts about the credibility of the information
available to them at the time, in the end, the group arrived at a
consensus that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction and represented a
significant threat to national security. It later came to light that
Iraq did not have weapons of mass destruction, but not until the
invasion was well underway. As a result, 6000 American soldiers were
killed and many more civilians died. How did the Bush administration
arrive at their conclusions? Here is a video of Colin Powell
discussing the information he had, 10 years after his famous United
Nations speech,
Why does groupthink occur? There are several causes of groupthink, which
makes it preventable. When the group is highly cohesive, or has a strong
sense of connection, maintaining group harmony may become more important
to the group than making sound decisions. If the group leader is
directive and makes his opinions known, this may discourage group
members from disagreeing with the leader. If the group is isolated from
hearing alternative or new viewpoints, groupthink may be more likely.
How do you know when groupthink is occurring?
There are several symptoms of groupthink including the following:
perceiving the group as invulnerable or invincible—believing it can
do no wrong
believing the group is morally correct
self-censorship by group members, such as withholding information to
avoid disrupting the group consensus
the quashing of dissenting group members’ opinions
the shielding of the group leader from dissenting views
perceiving an illusion of unanimity among group members
holding stereotypes or negative attitudes toward the out-group or
others’ with differing viewpoints (Janis, 1972)
Given the causes and symptoms of groupthink, how can it be avoided?
There are several strategies that can improve group decision making
including seeking outside opinions, voting in private, having the leader
withhold position statements until all group members have voiced their
views, conducting research on all viewpoints, weighing the costs and
benefits of all options, and developing a contingency plan (Janis, 1972;
Mitchell & Eckstein, 2009).
Another phenomenon that occurs within group settings is group
polarization. Group polarization{: data-type=“term”} (Teger &
Pruitt, 1967) is the strengthening of an original group attitude after
the discussion of views within a group. That is, if a group initially
favors a viewpoint, after discussion the group consensus is likely a
stronger endorsement of the viewpoint. Conversely, if the group was
initially opposed to a viewpoint, group discussion would likely lead to
stronger opposition. Group polarization explains many actions taken by
groups that would not be undertaken by individuals. Group polarization
can be observed at political conventions, when platforms of the party
are supported by individuals who, when not in a group, would decline to
support them. A more everyday example is a group’s discussion of how
attractive someone is. Does your opinion change if you find someone
attractive, but your friends do not agree? If your friends vociferously
agree, might you then find this person even more attractive?
Not all intergroup interactions lead to the negative outcomes we have
described. Sometimes being in a group situation can improve performance.
Social facilitation{: data-type=“term”} occurs when an individual
performs better when an audience is watching than when the individual
performs the behavior alone. This typically occurs when people are
performing a task for which they are skilled. Can you think of an
example in which having an audience could improve performance? One
common example is sports. Skilled basketball players will be more likely
to make a free throw basket when surrounded by a cheering audience than
when playing alone in the gym ([link]).
However, there are instances when even skilled athletes can have
difficulty under pressure. For example, if an athlete is less skilled or
nervous about making a free throw, having an audience may actually
hinder rather than help. In sum, social facilitation is likely to occur
for easy tasks, or tasks at which we are skilled, but worse performance
may occur when performing in front of others, depending on the task.
Another way in which a group presence can affect our performance is
social loafing. Social loafing{: data-type=“term”} is the exertion
of less effort by a person working together with a group. Social loafing
occurs when our individual performance cannot be evaluated separately
from the group. Thus, group performance declines on easy tasks (Karau &
Williams, 1993). Essentially individual group members loaf and let other
group members pick up the slack. Because each individual’s efforts
cannot be evaluated, individuals become less motivated to perform well.
For example, consider a group of people cooperating to clean litter from
the roadside. Some people will exert a great amount of effort, while
others will exert little effort. Yet the entire job gets done, and it
may not be obvious who worked hard and who didn’t.
As a college student you may have experienced social loafing while
working on a group project. Have you ever had to contribute more than
your fair share because your fellow group members weren’t putting in the
work? This may happen when a professor assigns a group grade instead of
individual grades. If the professor doesn’t know how much effort each
student contributed to a project, some students may be inclined to let
more conscientious students do more of the work. The chance of social
loafing in student work groups increases as the size of the group
increases (Shepperd & Taylor, 1999).
Interestingly, the opposite of social loafing occurs when the task is
complex and difficult (Bond & Titus, 1983; Geen, 1989). Remember the
previous discussion of choking under pressure? This happens when you
perform a difficult task and your individual performance can be
evaluated. In a group setting, such as the student work group, if your
individual performance cannot be evaluated, there is less pressure for
you to do well, and thus less anxiety or physiological arousal (Latané,
Williams, & Harkens, 1979). This puts you in a relaxed state in which
you can perform your best, if you choose (Zajonc, 1965). If the task is
a difficult one, many people feel motivated and believe that their group
needs their input to do well on a challenging project (Jackson &
Williams, 1985). Given what you learned about social loafing, what
advice would you give a new professor about how to design group
projects? If you suggested that individuals’ efforts should not be
evaluated, to prevent the anxiety of choking under pressure, but that
the task must be challenging, you have a good understanding of the
concepts discussed in this section. Alternatively, you can suggest that
individuals’ efforts should be evaluated, but the task should be easy so
as to facilitate performance. Good luck trying to convince your
professor to only assign easy projects.
[link] summarizes the types of social influence
you have learned about in this chapter.
Types of Social Influence
Type of Social Influence
Description
Conformity
Changing your behavior to go along with the group even if you do not
agree with the group
Compliance
Going along with a request or demand
Normative social influence
Conformity to a group norm to fit in, feel good, and be accepted by the
group
Informational social influence
Conformity to a group norm prompted by the belief that the group is
competent and has the correct information
Obedience
Changing your behavior to please an authority figure or to avoid
aversive consequences
Groupthink
Group members modify their opinions to match what they believe is the
group consensus
Group polarization
Strengthening of the original group attitude after discussing views
within a group
Social facilitation
Improved performance when an audience is watching versus when the
individual performs the behavior alone
Social loafing
Exertion of less effort by a person working in a group because
individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the group,
thus causing performance decline on easy tasks
The power of the situation can lead people to conform, or go along with
the group, even in the face of inaccurate information. Conformity to
group norms is driven by two motivations, the desire to fit in and be
liked and the desire to be accurate and gain information from the group.
Authority figures also have influence over our behaviors, and many
people become obedient and follow orders even if the orders are contrary
to their personal values. Conformity to group pressures can also result
in groupthink, or the faulty decision-making process that results from
cohesive group members trying to maintain group harmony. Group
situations can improve human behavior through facilitating performance
on easy tasks, but inhibiting performance on difficult tasks. The
presence of others can also lead to social loafing when individual
efforts cannot be evaluated.
Question
In the Asch experiment, participants conformed due to ________
social influence.
informational
normative
inspirational
persuasive {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Under what conditions will informational social influence be more
likely?
when individuals want to fit in
when the answer is unclear
when the group has expertise
both b and c {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Social loafing occurs when ________.
individual performance cannot be evaluated
the task is easy
both a and b
none of the above {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
If group members modify their opinions to align with a perceived
group consensus, then ________ has occurred.
Describe how seeking outside opinions can prevent groupthink.
Outsiders can serve as a quality control by offering diverse views
and views that may differ from the leader’s opinion. The outsider
can also remove the illusion of invincibility by having the
group’s action held up to outside scrutiny. An outsider may offer
additional information and uncover information that group members
withheld.
Compare and contrast social loafing and social facilitation.
In social loafing individual performance cannot be evaluated;
however, in social facilitation individual performance can be
evaluated. Social loafing and social facilitation both occur for
easy or well-known tasks and when individuals are relaxed.
Conduct a conformity study the next time you are in an elevator.
After you enter the elevator, stand with your back toward the
door. See if others conform to your behavior. Watch this
video for a
candid camera demonstration of this phenomenon. Did your results
turn out as expected?
Most students adamantly state that they would never have turned up
the voltage in the Milligram experiment. Do you think you would
have refused to shock the learner? Looking at your own past
behavior, what evidence suggests that you would go along with the
order to increase the voltage?
person who works for a researcher and is aware of the experiment,
but who acts as a participant; used to manipulate social
situations as part of the research design ^
exertion of less effort by a person working in a group because
individual performance cannot be evaluated separately from the
group, thus causing performance decline on easy tasks
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define and
distinguish among prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination *
Provide examples of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination *
Explain why prejudice and discrimination exist
Human conflict can result in crime, war, and mass murder, such as
genocide. Prejudice and discrimination often are root causes of human
conflict, which explains how strangers come to hate one another to the
extreme of causing others harm. Prejudice and discrimination affect
everyone. In this section we will examine the definitions of prejudice
and discrimination, examples of these concepts, and causes of these
biases.
As we discussed in the opening story of Trayvon Martin, humans are very
diverse and although we share many similarities, we also have many
differences. The social groups we belong to help form our identities
(Tajfel, 1974). These differences may be difficult for some people to
reconcile, which may lead to prejudice toward people who are different.
Prejudice{: data-type=“term”} is a negative attitude and feeling
toward an individual based solely on one’s membership in a particular
social group (Allport, 1954; Brown, 2010). Prejudice is common against
people who are members of an unfamiliar cultural group. Thus, certain
types of education, contact, interactions, and building relationships
with members of different cultural groups can reduce the tendency toward
prejudice. In fact, simply imagining interacting with members of
different cultural groups might affect prejudice. Indeed, when
experimental participants were asked to imagine themselves positively
interacting with someone from a different group, this led to an
increased positive attitude toward the other group and an increase in
positive traits associated with the other group. Furthermore, imagined
social interaction can reduce anxiety associated with inter-group
interactions (Crisp & Turner, 2009). What are some examples of social
groups that you belong to that contribute to your identity? Social
groups can include gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, social class,
religion, sexual orientation, profession, and many more. And, as is true
for social roles, you can simultaneously be a member of more than one
social group. An example of prejudice is having a negative attitude
toward people who are not born in the United States. Although people
holding this prejudiced attitude do not know all people who were not
born in the United States, they dislike them due to their status as
foreigners.
Can you think of a prejudiced attitude you have held toward a group of
people? How did your prejudice develop? Prejudice often begins in the
form of a stereotype{: data-type=“term”}—that is, a specific
belief or assumption about individuals based solely on their membership
in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics. Stereotypes
become overgeneralized and applied to all members of a group. For
example, someone holding prejudiced attitudes toward older adults, may
believe that older adults are slow and incompetent (Cuddy, Norton, &
Fiske, 2005; Nelson, 2004). We cannot possibly know each individual
person of advanced age to know that all older adults are slow and
incompetent. Therefore, this negative belief is overgeneralized to all
members of the group, even though many of the individual group members
may in fact be spry and intelligent.
Another example of a well-known stereotype involves beliefs about racial
differences among athletes. As Hodge, Burden, Robinson, and Bennett
(2008) point out, Black male athletes are often believed to be more
athletic, yet less intelligent, than their White male counterparts.
These beliefs persist despite a number of high profile examples to the
contrary. Sadly, such beliefs often influence how these athletes are
treated by others and how they view themselves and their own
capabilities. Whether or not you agree with a stereotype, stereotypes
are generally well-known within in a given culture (Devine, 1989).
Sometimes people will act on their prejudiced attitudes toward a group
of people, and this behavior is known as discrimination.
Discrimination{: data-type=“term”} is negative action toward an
individual as a result of one’s membership in a particular group
(Allport, 1954; Dovidio & Gaertner, 2004). As a result of holding
negative beliefs (stereotypes) and negative attitudes (prejudice) about
a particular group, people often treat the target of prejudice poorly,
such as excluding older adults from their circle of friends.
[link] summarizes the characteristics of
stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination. Have you ever been the
target of discrimination? If so, how did this negative treatment make
you feel?
Connecting Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Item
Function
Connection
Example
Stereotype
Cognitive; thoughts about people
Overgeneralized beliefs about people may lead to prejudice.
“Yankees fans are arrogant and obnoxious.”
Prejudice
Affective; feelings about people, both positive and negative
Feelings may influence treatment of others, leading to discrimination.
“I hate Yankees fans; they make me angry.”
Discrimination
Behavior; positive or negative treatment of others
Holding stereotypes and harboring prejudice may lead to excluding,
avoiding, and biased treatment of group members.
“I would never hire nor become friends with a person if I knew he or she
were a Yankees fan.”
So far, we’ve discussed stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination as
negative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors because these are typically
the most problematic. However, it is important to also point out that
people can hold positive thoughts, feelings, and behaviors toward
individuals based on group membership; for example, they would show
preferential treatment for people who are like themselves—that is, who
share the same gender, race, or favorite sports team.
See also
This video demonstrates the
concepts of prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination. In the video,
a social experiment is conducted in a park where three people try to
steal a bike out in the open. The race and gender of the thief is
varied: a White male teenager, a Black male teenager, and a White
female. Does anyone try to stop them? The treatment of the teenagers
in the video demonstrates the concept of racism.
When we meet strangers we automatically process three pieces of
information about them: their race, gender, and age (Ito & Urland,
2003). Why are these aspects of an unfamiliar person so important? Why
don’t we instead notice whether their eyes are friendly, whether they
are smiling, their height, the type of clothes they are wearing?
Although these secondary characteristics are important in forming a
first impression of a stranger, the social categories of race, gender,
and age provide a wealth of information about an individual. This
information, however, often is based on stereotypes. We may have
different expectations of strangers depending on their race, gender, and
age. What stereotypes and prejudices do you hold about people who are
from a race, gender, and age group different from your own?
Racism{: data-type=“term”} is prejudice{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} and discriminationpastehere
against an individual based solely on one’s membership in a specific
racial group (such as toward African Americans, Asian Americans,
Latinos, Native Americans, European Americans). What are some
stereotypes of various racial or ethnic groups? Research suggests
cultural stereotypes for Asian Americans include cold, sly, and
intelligent; for Latinos, cold and unintelligent; for European
Americans, cold and intelligent; and for African Americans, aggressive,
athletic, and more likely to be law breakers (Devine & Elliot, 1995;
Fiske, Cuddy, Glick, & Xu, 2002; Sommers & Ellsworth, 2000; Dixon &
Linz, 2000).
Racism exists for many racial and ethnic groups. For example, Blacks are
significantly more likely to have their vehicles searched during traffic
stops than Whites, particularly when Blacks are driving in predominately
White neighborhoods, (a phenomenon often termed “DWB,” or “driving while
Black.”) (Rojek, Rosenfeld, & Decker, 2012)
Mexican Americans and other Latino groups also are targets of racism
from the police and other members of the community. For example, when
purchasing items with a personal check, Latino shoppers are more likely
than White shoppers to be asked to show formal identification (Dovidio
et al., 2010).
In one case of alleged harassment by the police, several East Haven,
Connecticut, police officers were arrested on federal charges due to
reportedly continued harassment and brutalization of Latinos. When the
accusations came out, the mayor of East Haven was asked, “What are you
doing for the Latino community today?” The Mayor responded, “I might
have tacos when I go home, I’m not quite sure yet” (“East Haven Mayor,”
2012) This statement undermines the important issue of racial profiling
and police harassment of Latinos, while belittling Latino culture by
emphasizing an interest in a food product stereotypically associated
with Latinos.
Racism is prevalent toward many other groups in the United States
including Native Americans, Arab Americans, Jewish Americans, and Asian
Americans. Have you witnessed racism toward any of these racial or
ethnic groups? Are you aware of racism in your community?
One reason modern forms of racism, and prejudice in general, are hard to
detect is related to the dual attitudes model (Wilson, Lindsey, &
Schooler, 2000). Humans have two forms of attitudes: explicit attitudes,
which are conscious and controllable, and implicit attitudes, which are
unconscious and uncontrollable (Devine, 1989; Olson & Fazio, 2003).
Because holding egalitarian views is socially desirable (Plant & Devine,
1998), most people do not show extreme racial bias or other prejudices
on measures of their explicit attitudes. However, measures of implicit
attitudes often show evidence of mild to strong racial bias or other
prejudices (Greenwald, McGee, & Schwartz, 1998; Olson & Fazio, 2003).
Sexism{: data-type=“term”} is prejudice{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} and discriminationpastehere
toward individuals based on their sex. Typically, sexism takes the form
of men holding biases against women, but either sex can show sexism
toward their own or their opposite sex. Like racism, sexism may be
subtle and difficult to detect. Common forms of sexism in modern society
include gender role expectations, such as expecting women to be the
caretakers of the household. Sexism also includes people’s expectations
for how members of a gender group should behave. For example, women are
expected to be friendly, passive, and nurturing, and when women behave
in an unfriendly, assertive, or neglectful manner they often are
disliked for violating their gender role (Rudman, 1998). Research by
Laurie Rudman (1998) finds that when female job applicants self-promote,
they are likely to be viewed as competent, but they may be disliked and
are less likely to be hired because they violated gender expectations
for modesty. Sexism can exist on a societal level such as in hiring,
employment opportunities, and education. Women are less likely to be
hired or promoted in male-dominated professions such as engineering,
aviation, and construction ([link]) (Blau,
Ferber, & Winkler, 2010; Ceci & Williams, 2011). Have you ever
experienced or witnessed sexism? Think about your family members’ jobs
or careers. Why do you think there are differences in the jobs women and
men have, such as more women nurses but more male surgeons (Betz, 2008)?
People often form judgments and hold expectations about people based on
their age. These judgments and expectations can lead to ageism{:
data-type=“term”}, or prejudicepastehere
and discriminationpastehere toward
individuals based solely on their age. Typically, ageism occurs against
older adults, but ageism also can occur toward younger adults. Think of
expectations you hold for older adults. How could someone’s expectations
influence the feelings they hold toward individuals from older age
groups? Ageism is widespread in U.S. culture (Nosek, 2005), and a common
ageist attitude toward older adults is that they are incompetent,
physically weak, and slow (Greenberg, Schimel, & Martens, 2002) and some
people consider older adults less attractive. Some cultures, however,
including some Asian, Latino, and African American cultures, both
outside and within the United States afford older adults respect and
honor.
Ageism can also occur toward younger adults. What expectations do you
hold toward younger people? Does society expect younger adults to be
immature and irresponsible? How might these two forms of ageism affect a
younger and older adult who are applying for a sales clerk position?
Another form of prejudice is homophobia{: data-type=“term”}:
prejudicepastehere and
discriminationpastehere of individuals
based solely on their sexual orientation. Like ageism,
homophobiapastehere is a widespread
prejudice in U.S. society that is tolerated by many people (Herek &
McLemore, 2013; Nosek, 2005). Negative feelings often result in
discrimination, such as the exclusion of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and
transgender (LGBT) people from social groups and the avoidance of LGBT
neighbors and co-workers. This discrimination also extends to employers
deliberately declining to hire qualified LGBT job applicants. Have you
experienced or witnessed homophobia? If so, what stereotypes, prejudiced
attitudes, and discrimination were evident?
Tip
Research into Homophobia
Some people are quite passionate in their hatred for nonheterosexuals
in our society. In some cases, people have been tortured and/or
murdered simply because they were not heterosexual. This passionate
response has led some researchers to question what motives might
exist for homophobic people. Adams, Wright, & Lohr (1996) conducted a
study investigating this issue and their results were quite an
eye-opener.
In this experiment, male college students were given a scale that
assessed how homophobic they were; those with extreme scores were
recruited to participate in the experiment. In the end, 64 men agreed
to participate and were split into 2 groups: homophobic men and
nonhomophobic men. Both groups of men were fitted with a penile
plethysmograph, an instrument that measures changes in blood flow to
the penis and serves as an objective measurement of sexual arousal.
All men were shown segments of sexually explicit videos. One of these
videos involved a sexual interaction between a man and a woman
(heterosexual clip). One video displayed two females engaged in a
sexual interaction (homosexual female clip), and the final video
displayed two men engaged in a sexual interaction (homosexual male
clip). Changes in penile tumescence were recorded during all three
clips, and a subjective measurement of sexual arousal was also
obtained. While both groups of men became sexually aroused to the
heterosexual and female homosexual video clips, only those men who
were identified as homophobic showed sexual arousal to the homosexual
male video clip. While all men reported that their erections
indicated arousal for the heterosexual and female homosexual clips,
the homophobic men indicated that they were not sexually aroused
(despite their erections) to the male homosexual clips. Adams et
al. (1996) suggest that these findings may indicate that homophobia
is related to homosexual arousal that the homophobic individuals
either deny or are unaware.
Prejudicepastehere and
discriminationpastehere persist in society
due to social learning and conformity to social norms. Children learn
prejudiced attitudes and beliefs from society: their parents, teachers,
friends, the media, and other sources of socialization, such as Facebook
(O’Keeffe & Clarke-Pearson, 2011). If certain types of prejudice and
discrimination are acceptable in a society, there may be normative
pressures to conform and share those prejudiced beliefs, attitudes, and
behaviors. For example, public and private schools are still somewhat
segregated by social class. Historically, only children from wealthy
families could afford to attend private schools, whereas children from
middle- and low-income families typically attended public schools. If a
child from a low-income family received a merit scholarship to attend a
private school, how might the child be treated by classmates? Can you
recall a time when you held prejudiced attitudes or beliefs or acted in
a discriminatory manner because your group of friends expected you to?
When we hold a stereotypepastehere about a
person, we have expectations that he or she will fulfill that
stereotype. A self-fulfilling prophecy{: data-type=“term”} is an
expectation held by a person that alters his or her behavior in a way
that tends to make it true. When we hold stereotypes about a person, we
tend to treat the person according to our expectations. This treatment
can influence the person to act according to our stereotypic
expectations, thus confirming our stereotypic beliefs. Research by
Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) found that disadvantaged students whose
teachers expected them to perform well had higher grades than
disadvantaged students whose teachers expected them to do poorly.
Consider this example of cause and effect in a self-fulfilling prophecy:
If an employer expects an openly gay male job applicant to be
incompetent, the potential employer might treat the applicant negatively
during the interview by engaging in less conversation, making little eye
contact, and generally behaving coldly toward the applicant (Hebl,
Foster, Mannix, & Dovidio, 2002). In turn, the job applicant will
perceive that the potential employer dislikes him, and he will respond
by giving shorter responses to interview questions, making less eye
contact, and generally disengaging from the interview. After the
interview, the employer will reflect on the applicant’s behavior, which
seemed cold and distant, and the employer will conclude, based on the
applicant’s poor performance during the interview, that the applicant
was in fact incompetent. Thus, the employer’s stereotype—gay men are
incompetent and do not make good employees—is reinforced. Do you think
this job applicant is likely to be hired? Treating individuals according
to stereotypic beliefs can lead to prejudice and discrimination.
Another dynamic that can reinforce stereotypes is confirmation bias.
When interacting with the target of our prejudice, we tend to pay
attention to information that is consistent with our stereotypic
expectations and ignore information that is inconsistent with our
expectations. In this process, known as confirmation bias{:
data-type=“term”}, we seek out information that supports our stereotypes
and ignore information that is inconsistent with our stereotypes (Wason
& Johnson-Laird, 1972). In the job interview example, the employer may
not have noticed that the job applicant was friendly and engaging, and
that he provided competent responses to the interview questions in the
beginning of the interview. Instead, the employer focused on the job
applicant’s performance in the later part of the interview, after the
applicant changed his demeanor and behavior to match the interviewer’s
negative treatment.
Have you ever fallen prey to the self-fulfilling prophecy or
confirmation bias, either as the source or target of such bias? How
might we stop the cycle of the self-fulfilling prophecy? Social class
stereotypes of individuals tend to arise when information about the
individual is ambiguous. If information is unambiguous, stereotypes do
not tend to arise (Baron et al., 1995).
As discussed previously in this section, we all belong to a gender,
race, age, and social economic group. These groups provide a powerful
source of our identity and self-esteem (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). These
groups serve as our in-groups. An in-group{: data-type=“term”} is
a group that we identify with or see ourselves as belonging to. A group
that we don’t belong to, or an out-group{: data-type=“term”}, is a
group that we view as fundamentally different from us. For example, if
you are female, your gender in-group includes all females, and your
gender out-group includes all males
([link]). People often view gender
groups as being fundamentally different from each other in personality
traits, characteristics, social roles, and interests. Because we often
feel a strong sense of belonging and emotional connection to our
in-groups, we develop in-group bias: a preference for our own group over
other groups. This in-group bias{: data-type=“term”} can result in
prejudice and discrimination because the out-group is perceived as
different and is less preferred than our in-group.
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_05_children}
Despite the group dynamics that seem only to push groups toward
conflict, there are forces that promote reconciliation between groups:
the expression of empathy, of acknowledgment of past suffering on both
sides, and the halt of destructive behaviors.
One function of prejudice is to help us feel good about ourselves and
maintain a positive self-concept. This need to feel good about ourselves
extends to our in-groups: We want to feel good and protect our
in-groups. We seek to resolve threats individually and at the in-group
level. This often happens by blaming an out-group for the problem.
Scapegoating{: data-type=“term”} is the act of blaming an
out-group when the in-group experiences frustration or is blocked from
obtaining a goal (Allport, 1954).
As diverse individuals, humans can experience conflict when interacting
with people who are different from each other. Prejudice, or negative
feelings and evaluations, is common when people are from a different
social group (i.e., out-group). Negative attitudes toward out-groups can
lead to discrimination. Prejudice and discrimination against others can
be based on gender, race, ethnicity, social class, sexual orientation,
or a variety of other social identities. In-group’s who feel threatened
may blame the out-groups for their plight, thus using the out-group as a
scapegoat for their frustration.
Question
Prejudice is to ________ as discrimination is to ________.
feelings; behavior
thoughts; feelings
feelings; thoughts
behavior; feelings {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Which of the following is not a type of prejudice?
homophobia
racism
sexism
individualism {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
________ occurs when the out-group is blamed for the in-group’s
frustration.
stereotyping
in-group bias
scapegoating
ageism {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
When we seek out information that supports our stereotypes we are
engaged in ________.
Some people seem more willing to openly display prejudice
regarding sexual orientation than prejudice regarding race and
gender. Speculate on why this might be.
In the United States, many people believe that sexual orientation
is a choice, and there is some debate in the research literature
as to the extent sexual orientation is biological or influenced by
social factors. Because race and gender are not chosen, many
Americans believe it is unfair to negatively judge women or racial
minority groups for a characteristic that is determined by
genetics. In addition, many people in the United States practice
religions that believe homosexuality is wrong.
When people blame a scapegoat, how do you think they choose
evidence to support the blame?
One way in which they might do this is to selectively attend to
information that would bolster their argument. Furthermore, they
may actively seek out information to confirm their assertions.
Give an example when you felt that someone was prejudiced against
you. What do you think caused this attitude? Did this person
display any discrimination behaviors and, if so, how?
Give an example when you felt prejudiced against someone else. How
did you discriminate against them? Why do you think you did this?
treating stereotyped group members according to our biased
expectations only to have this treatment influence the individual
to act according to our stereotypic expectations, thus confirming
our stereotypic beliefs ^
specific beliefs or assumptions about individuals based solely on
their membership in a group, regardless of their individual
characteristics
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define aggression
* Define cyberbullying * Describe the bystander effect
Throughout this chapter we have discussed how people interact and
influence one another’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors in both
positive and negative ways. People can work together to achieve great
things, such as helping each other in emergencies: recall the heroism
displayed during the 9/11 terrorist attacks. People also can do great
harm to one another, such as conforming to group norms that are immoral
and obeying authority to the point of murder: consider the mass
conformity of Nazis during WWII. In this section we will discuss a
negative side of human behavior—aggression.
Humans engage in aggression when they seek to
cause harm or pain to another person. Aggression takes two forms
depending on one’s motives: hostile or instrumental. Hostile aggression is motivated by feelings of anger
with intent to cause pain; a fight in a bar with a stranger is an
example of hostile aggression. In contrast, instrumental aggression is motivated by achieving a goal and
does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain (Berkowitz, 1993); a
contract killer who murders for hire displays instrumental aggression.
There are many different theories as to why aggression exists. Some
researchers argue that aggression serves an evolutionary function (Buss,
2004). Men are more likely than women to show aggression (Wilson & Daly,
1985). From the perspective of evolutionary psychology, human male
aggression, like that in nonhuman primates, likely serves to display
dominance over other males, both to protect a mate and to perpetuate the
male’s genes ([link]). Sexual jealousy
is part of male aggression; males endeavor to make sure their mates are
not copulating with other males, thus ensuring their own paternity of
the female’s offspring. Although aggression provides an obvious
evolutionary advantage for men, women also engage in aggression. Women
typically display instrumental forms of aggression, with their
aggression serving as a means to an end (Dodge & Schwartz, 1997). For
example, women may express their aggression covertly, for example, by
communication that impairs the social standing of another person.
Another theory that explains one of the functions of human aggression is
frustration aggression theory
(Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939). This theory states that
when humans are prevented from achieving an important goal, they become
frustrated and aggressive.
A modern form of aggression is bullying. As you learn in your study of
child development, socializing and playing with other children is
beneficial for children’s psychological development. However, as you may
have experienced as a child, not all play behavior has positive
outcomes. Some children are aggressive and want to play roughly. Other
children are selfish and do not want to share toys. One form of negative
social interactions among children that has become a national concern is
bullying. Bullying is repeated negative
treatment of another person, often an adolescent, over time (Olweus,
1993). A one-time incident in which one child hits another child on the
playground would not be considered bullying: Bullying is repeated
behaviour. The negative treatment typical in bullying is the attempt to
inflict harm, injury, or humiliation, and bullying can include physical
or verbal attacks. However, bullying doesn’t have to be physical or
verbal, it can be psychological. Research finds gender differences in
how girls and boys bully others (American Psychological Association,
2010; Olweus, 1993). Boys tend to engage in direct, physical aggression
such as physically harming others. Girls tend to engage in indirect,
social forms of aggression such as spreading rumors, ignoring, or
socially isolating others. Based on what you have learned about child
development and social roles, why do you think boys and girls display
different types of bullying behavior?
Bullying involves three parties: the bully, the victim, and witnesses or
bystanders. The act of bullying involves an imbalance of power with the
bully holding more power—physically, emotionally, and/or socially over
the victim. The experience of bullying can be positive for the bully,
who may enjoy a boost to self-esteem. However, there are several
negative consequences of bullying for the victim, and also for the
bystanders. How do you think bullying negatively impacts adolescents?
Being the victim of bullying is associated with decreased mental health,
including experiencing anxiety and depression (APA, 2010). Victims of
bullying may underperform in schoolwork (Bowen, 2011). Bullying also can
result in the victim committing suicide (APA, 2010). How might bullying
negatively affect witnesses?
Although there is not one single personality profile for who becomes a
bully and who becomes a victim of bullying{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} (APA, 2010), researchers have identified some patterns in
children who are at a greater risk of being bullied (Olweus, 1993):
Children who are emotionally reactive are at a greater risk for being
bullied. Bullies may be attracted to children who get upset easily
because the bully can quickly get an emotional reaction from them.
Children who are different from others are likely to be targeted for
bullying. Children who are overweight, cognitively impaired, or
racially or ethnically different from their peer group may be at
higher risk.
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender teens are at very high risk
of being bullied and hurt due to their sexual orientation.
With the rapid growth of technology, and widely available mobile
technology and social networking media, a new form of bullying has
emerged: cyberbullying (Hoff & Mitchell, 2009). Cyberbullying{:
data-type=“term”}, like bullying, is repeated behavior that is intended
to cause psychological or emotional harm to another person. What is
unique about cyberbullying is that it is typically covert, concealed,
done in private, and the bully can remain anonymous. This anonymity
gives the bully power, and the victim may feel helpless, unable to
escape the harassment, and unable to retaliate (Spears, Slee, Owens, &
Johnson, 2009).
Cyberbullying can take many forms, including harassing a victim by
spreading rumors, creating a website defaming the victim, and ignoring,
insulting, laughing at, or teasing the victim (Spears et al., 2009). In
cyberbullying, it is more common for girls to be the bullies and victims
because cyberbullying is nonphysical and is a less direct form of
bullying ([link]) (Hoff & Mitchell,
2009). Interestingly, girls who become cyberbullies often have been the
victims of cyberbullying at one time (Vandebosch & Van Cleemput, 2009).
The effects of cyberbullying are just as harmful as traditional bullying
and include the victim feeling frustration, anger, sadness,
helplessness, powerlessness, and fear. Victims will also experience
lower self-esteem (Hoff & Mitchell, 2009; Spears et al., 2009).
Furthermore, recent research suggests that both cyberbullying victims
and perpetrators are more likely to experience suicidal ideation, and
they are more likely to attempt suicide than individuals who have no
experience with cyberbullying (Hinduja & Patchin, 2010). What features
of technology make cyberbullying easier and perhaps more accessible to
young adults? What can parents, teachers, and social networking
websites, like Facebook, do to prevent cyberbullying?
The discussion of bullying highlights the problem of witnesses not
intervening to help a victim. This is a common occurrence, as the
following well-publicized event demonstrates. In 1964, in Queens, New
York, a 19-year-old woman named Kitty Genovese{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} was attacked by a person with a knife near the back
entrance to her apartment building and again in the hallway inside her
apartment building. When the attack occurred, she screamed for help
numerous times and eventually died from her stab wounds. This story
became famous because reportedly numerous residents in the apartment
building heard her cries for help and did nothing—neither helping her
nor summoning the police—though these have facts been disputed.
Based on this case, researchers Latané and Darley (1968) described a
phenomenon called the bystander effect. The bystander effect{:
data-type=“term”} is a phenomenon in which a witness or bystander does
not volunteer to help a victim or person in distress. Instead, they just
watch what is happening. Social psychologists hold that we make these
decisions based on the social situation, not our own personality
variables. Why do you think the bystanders didn’t help Genovese? What
are the benefits to helping her? What are the risks? It is very likely
you listed more costs than benefits to helping. In this situation,
bystanders likely feared for their own lives—if they went to her aid the
attacker might harm them. However, how difficult would it have been to
make a phone call to the police from the safety of their apartments? Why
do you think no one helped in any way? Social psychologists claim that
diffusion of responsibility is the likely explanation. Diffusion of responsibility is the tendency for no one in a
group to help because the responsibility to help is spread throughout
the group (Bandura, 1999). Because there were many witnesses to the
attack on Genovese, as evidenced by the number of lit apartment windows
in the building, individuals assumed someone else must have already
called the police. The responsibility to call the police was diffused
across the number of witnesses to the crime. Have you ever passed an
accident on the freeway and assumed that a victim or certainly another
motorist has already reported the accident? In general, the greater the
number of bystanders, the less likely any one person will help.
Aggression is seeking to cause another person harm or pain. Hostile
aggression is motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain,
and instrumental aggression is motivated by achieving a goal and does
not necessarily involve intent to cause pain Bullying is an
international public health concern that largely affects the adolescent
population. Bullying is repeated behaviors that are intended to inflict
harm on the victim and can take the form of physical, psychological,
emotional, or social abuse. Bullying has negative mental health
consequences for youth including suicide. Cyberbullying is a newer form
of bullying that takes place in an online environment where bullies can
remain anonymous and victims are helpless to address the harassment.
Despite the social norm of helping others in need, when there are many
bystanders witnessing an emergency, diffusion of responsibility will
lead to a lower likelihood of any one person helping.
Question
Typically, bullying from boys is to ________ as bullying from
girls is to ________.
emotional harm; physical harm
physical harm; emotional harm
psychological harm; physical harm
social exclusion; verbal taunting {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which of the following adolescents is least likely to be targeted
for bullying?
a child with a physical disability
a transgender adolescent
an emotionally sensitive boy
the captain of the football team {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The bystander effect likely occurs due to ________.
Compare and contrast hostile and instrumental aggression.
Hostile aggression is intentional with the purpose to inflict
pain. Hostile aggression is often motivated by anger. In contrast,
instrumental aggression is not motivated by anger or the intention
to cause pain. Instrumental aggression serves as a means to reach
a goal. In a sense it is a more practical or functional form of
aggression, whereas hostile aggression is more emotion-driven and
less functional and rational.
What evidence discussed in the previous section suggests that
cyberbullying is difficult to detect and prevent?
Cyberbullying is difficult to prevent because there are so many
forms of media that adolescents use and are exposed to. The
Internet is virtually everywhere: computers, phones, tablets, TVs,
gaming systems, and so on. Parents likely do not monitor all of
their children’s use of the Internet, thus their children could be
exposed to cyberbullying without their knowledge. Cyberbullying is
difficult to detect because it can be done anonymously.
Cyberbullies can use pseudonyms and can attack victims in
untraceable ways, such as hacking into Facebook accounts or making
Twitter posts on their behalf.
Have you ever experienced or witnessed bullying or cyberbullying?
How did it make you feel? What did you do about it? After reading
this section would you have done anything differently?
The next time you see someone needing help, observe your
surroundings. Look to see if the bystander effect is in action and
take measures to make sure the person gets help. If you aren’t
able to help, notify an adult or authority figure that can.
aggression motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily
involve intent to cause pain
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Describe conditions that influence the formation of relationships
Identify what attracts people to each other
Describe the triangular theory of love
Explain social exchange theory in relationships
…
You’ve learned about many of the negative behaviors of social
psychology, but the field also studies many positive social interactions
and behaviors. What makes people like each other? With whom are we
friends? Whom do we date? Researchers have documented several features
of the situation that influence whether we form relationships with
others. There are also universal traits that humans find attractive in
others. In this section we discuss conditions that make forming
relationships more likely, what we look for in friendships and romantic
relationships, the different types of love, and a theory explaining how
our relationships are formed, maintained, and terminated.
Do you voluntarily help others? Voluntary behavior with the intent to
help other people is called prosocial behavior{:
data-type=“term”}. Why do people help other people? Is personal benefit
such as feeling good about oneself the only reason people help one
another? Research suggests there are many other reasons.
Altruism{: data-type=“term”} is people’s desire to help others
even if the costs outweigh the benefits of helping. In fact, people
acting in altruistic ways may disregard the personal costs associated
with helping ([link]). For example, news
accounts of the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New
York reported an employee in the first tower helped his co-workers make
it to the exit stairwell. After helping a co-worker to safety he went
back in the burning building to help additional co-workers. In this case
the costs of helping were great, and the hero lost his life in the
destruction (Stewart, 2002).
{: #CNX_Psych_12_06_altruism}
Some researchers suggest that altruism operates on empathy.
Empathy{: data-type=“term”} is the capacity to understand another
person’s perspective, to feel what he or she feels. An empathetic person
makes an emotional connection with others and feels compelled to help
(Batson, 1991). Other researchers argue that altruism is a form of
selfless helping that is not motivated by benefits or feeling good about
oneself. Certainly, after helping, people feel good about themselves,
but some researchers argue that this is a consequence of altruism, not a
cause. Other researchers argue that helping is always self-serving
because our egos are involved, and we receive benefits from helping
(Cialdini, Brown, Lewis, Luce, & Neuberg 1997). It is challenging to
determine experimentally the true motivation for helping, whether is it
largely self-serving (egoism) or selfless (altruism). Thus, a debate on
whether pure altruism exists continues.
See also
See this excerpt from the popular TV series Friends
episode for a discussion of
the egoism versus altruism debate.
What do you think is the single most influential factor in determining
with whom you become friends and whom you form romantic relationships?
You might be surprised to learn that the answer is simple: the people
with whom you have the most contact. This most important factor is
proximity. You are more likely to be friends with people you have
regular contact with. For example, there are decades of research that
shows that you are more likely to become friends with people who live in
your dorm, your apartment building, or your immediate neighborhood than
with people who live farther away (Festinger, Schachler, & Back, 1950).
It is simply easier to form relationships with people you see often
because you have the opportunity to get to know them.
Similarity is another factor that influences who we form relationships
with. We are more likely to become friends or lovers with someone who is
similar to us in background, attitudes, and lifestyle. In fact, there is
no evidence that opposites attract. Rather, we are attracted to people
who are most like us ([link]) (McPherson,
Smith-Lovin, & Cook, 2001). Why do you think we are attracted to people
who are similar to us? Sharing things in common will certainly make it
easy to get along with others and form connections. When you and another
person share similar music taste, hobbies, food preferences, and so on,
deciding what to do with your time together might be easy.
Homophily{: data-type=“term”} is the tendency for people to form
social networks, including friendships, marriage, business
relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who
are similar (McPherson et al., 2001).
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_07_wedding}
But, homophily limits our exposure to diversity (McPherson et al.,
2001). By forming relationships only with people who are similar to us,
we will have homogenous groups and will not be exposed to different
points of view. In other words, because we are likely to spend time with
those who are most like ourselves, we will have limited exposure to
those who are different than ourselves, including people of different
races, ethnicities, social-economic status, and life situations.
Once we form relationships with people, we desire reciprocity.
Reciprocity{: data-type=“term”} is the give and take in
relationships. We contribute to relationships, but we expect to receive
benefits as well. That is, we want our relationships to be a two way
street. We are more likely to like and engage with people who like us
back. Self-disclosure is part of the two way street.
Self-disclosure{: data-type=“term”} is the sharing of personal
information (Laurenceau, Barrett, & Pietromonaco, 1998). We form more
intimate connections with people with whom we disclose important
information about ourselves. Indeed, self-disclosure is a characteristic
of healthy intimate relationships, as long as the information disclosed
is consistent with our own views (Cozby, 1973).
We have discussed how proximity and similarity lead to the formation of
relationships, and that reciprocity and self-disclosure are important
for relationship maintenance. But, what features of a person do we find
attractive? We don’t form relationships with everyone that lives or
works near us, so how is it that we decide which specific individuals we
will select as friends and lovers?
Researchers have documented several characteristics in men and women
that humans find attractive. First we look for friends and lovers who
are physically attractive. People differ in what they consider
attractive, and attractiveness is culturally influenced. Research,
however, suggests that some universally attractive features in women
include large eyes, high cheekbones, a narrow jaw line, a slender build
(Buss, 1989), and a lower waist-to-hip ratio (Singh, 1993). For men,
attractive traits include being tall, having broad shoulders, and a
narrow waist (Buss, 1989). Both men and women with high levels of facial
and body symmetry are generally considered more attractive than
asymmetric individuals (Fink, Neave, Manning, & Grammer, 2006;
Penton-Voak et al., 2001; Rikowski & Grammer, 1999). Social traits that
people find attractive in potential female mates include warmth,
affection, and social skills; in males, the attractive traits include
achievement, leadership qualities, and job skills (Regan & Berscheid,
1997). Although humans want mates who are physically attractive, this
does not mean that we look for the most attractive person possible. In
fact, this observation has led some to propose what is known as the
matching hypothesis which asserts that people tend to pick someone they
view as their equal in physical attractiveness and social desirability
(Taylor, Fiore, Mendelsohn, & Cheshire, 2011). For example, you and most
people you know likely would say that a very attractive movie star is
out of your league. So, even if you had proximity to that person, you
likely would not ask them out on a date because you believe you likely
would be rejected. People weigh a potential partner’s attractiveness
against the likelihood of success with that person. If you think you are
particularly unattractive (even if you are not), you likely will seek
partners that are fairly unattractive (that is, unattractive in physical
appearance or in behavior).
We typically love the people with whom we form relationships, but the
type of love we have for our family, friends, and lovers differs. Robert
Sternberg (1986) proposed that there are three components of love:
intimacy, passion, and commitment. These three components form a
triangle that defines multiple types of love: this is known as
Sternberg’s triangular theory of love{: data-type=“term”}
([link]). Intimacy is the sharing of details
and intimate thoughts and emotions. Passion is the physical
attraction—the flame in the fire. Commitment is standing by the
person—the “in sickness and health” part of the relationship.
{: #CNX_Psych_12_07_love}
Sternberg (1986) states that a healthy relationship will have all three
components of love—intimacy, passion, and commitment—which is described
as consummate love{: data-type=“term”}
([link]). However, different aspects of
love might be more prevalent at different life stages. Other forms of
love include liking, which is defined as having intimacy but no passion
or commitment. Infatuation is the presence of passion without intimacy
or commitment. Empty love is having commitment without intimacy or
passion. Companionate love{: data-type=“term”}, which is
characteristic of close friendships and family relationships, consists
of intimacy and commitment but no passion. Romantic love{:
data-type=“term”} is defined by having passion and intimacy, but no
commitment. Finally, fatuous love is defined by having passion and
commitment, but no intimacy, such as a long term sexual love affair. Can
you describe other examples of relationships that fit these different
types of love?
We have discussed why we form relationships, what attracts us to others,
and different types of love. But what determines whether we are
satisfied with and stay in a relationship? One theory that provides an
explanation is social exchange theory. According to social exchange
theory{: data-type=“term”}, we act as naïve economists in keeping a
tally of the ratio of costs and benefits of forming and maintaining a
relationship with others ([link])
(Rusbult & Van Lange, 2003).
{: #CNX_Psych_12_07_exchange}
People are motivated to maximize the benefits of social exchanges, or
relationships, and minimize the costs. People prefer to have more
benefits than costs, or to have nearly equal costs and benefits, but
most people are dissatisfied if their social exchanges create more costs
than benefits. Let’s discuss an example. If you have ever decided to
commit to a romantic relationship, you probably considered the
advantages and disadvantages of your decision. What are the benefits of
being in a committed romantic relationship? You may have considered
having companionship, intimacy, and passion, but also being comfortable
with a person you know well. What are the costs of being in a committed
romantic relationship? You may think that over time boredom from being
with only one person may set in; moreover, it may be expensive to share
activities such as attending movies and going to dinner. However, the
benefits of dating your romantic partner presumably outweigh the costs,
or you wouldn’t continue the relationship.
Altruism is a pure form of helping others out of empathy, which can be
contrasted with egoistic motivations for helping. Forming relationships
with others is a necessity for social beings. We typically form
relationships with people who are close to us in proximity and people
with whom we share similarities. We expect reciprocity and
self-disclosure in our relationships. We also want to form relationships
with people who are physically attractive, though standards for
attractiveness vary by culture and gender. There are many types of love
that are determined by various combinations of intimacy, passion, and
commitment; consummate love, which is the ideal form of love, contains
all three components. When determining satisfaction and whether to
maintain a relationship, individuals often use a social exchange
approach and weigh the costs and benefits of forming and maintaining a
relationship.
Question 1
Altruism is a form of prosocial behavior that is motivated by
________.
feeling good about oneself
selfless helping of others
earning a reward
showing bravery to bystanders {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question 2
After moving to a new apartment building, research suggests that
Sam will be most likely to become friends with ________.
his next door neighbor
someone who lives three floors up in the apartment building
someone from across the street
his new postal delivery person {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question 3
What trait do both men and women tend to look for in a romantic
partner?
sense of humor
social skills
leadership potential
physical attractiveness {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question 4
According to the triangular theory of love, what type of love is
defined by passion and intimacy but no commitment?
consummate love
empty love
romantic love
liking {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question 5
According to social exchange theory, humans want to maximize the
________ and minimize the ________ in relationships.
Describe what influences whether relationships will be formed.
Proximity is a major situational factor in relationship formation;
people who have frequent contact are more likely to form
relationships. Whether or not individuals will form a relationship
is based on non-situational factors such as similarity,
reciprocity, self-disclosure, and physical attractiveness. In
relationships, people seek reciprocity (i.e., a give and take in
costs and benefits), self-disclosure of intimate information, and
physically attractive partners.
The evolutionary theory argues that humans are motivated to
perpetuate their genes and reproduce. Using an evolutionary
perspective, describe traits in men and women that humans find
attractive.
Traits that promote reproduction in females warmth, affection, and
social skills; women with these traits are presumably better able
to care for children. Traits that are desired in males include
achievement, leadership qualities, and job skills; men with these
traits are thought to be better able to financially provide for
their families.
Think about your recent friendships and romantic relationship(s).
What factors do you think influenced the development of these
relationships? What attracted you to becoming friends or romantic
partners?
Have you ever used a social exchange theory approach to determine
how satisfied you were in a relationship, either a friendship or
romantic relationship? Have you ever had the costs outweigh the
benefits of a relationship? If so, how did you address this
imbalance?
tendency for people to form social networks, including
friendships, marriage, business relationships, and many other
types of relationships, with others who are similar ^
humans act as naïve economists in keeping a tally of the ratio of
costs and benefits of forming and maintain a relationship, with
the goal to maximize benefits and minimize costs ^
model of love based on three components: intimacy, passion, and
commitment; several types of love exist, depending on the presence
or absence of each of these components
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If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
In July 2012, Yahoo!, one of the largest and oldest web companies,
announced the appointment of Marissa Mayer as CEO. Yahoo! had struggled
to define itself and excel in the industry for several years, and the
appointment of Mayer, a top Google executive, made big news. Among her
many decisions, in February 2013, Mayer announced that employees would
no longer be allowed to telecommute. Telecommuting is representative of
many management innovations that have been made in recent years, largely
by tech companies. Telecommuting reflects a belief on the part of
companies that employees are responsible, self-motivating, and perhaps
work best when they are left alone. It also has an impact on work–family
balance, though which way is yet unclear. And telecommuting reflects the
more general trend of increasing overlap between workers’ time spent on
the job and time spent off the job.
The reversal of this policy at Yahoo! brought controversy and a lot of
questions about what it meant. Mayer has stayed largely quiet on her
reasoning behind the decision, except to say that it was meant to better
the company. She finally addressed her decision briefly at the 2013
Great Place to Work conference (Tkaczyk, 2013) by saying, among other
things, that while “people are more productive when they’re alone,
they’re more collaborative and innovative when they’re together.”
Interestingly, shortly after the Yahoo! change, consumer electronics
retailer Best Buy also eliminated telecommuting as an option for their
employees. Will the change make Yahoo! more innovative or more
productive? How has the change affected employees at the company,
particularly working parents and those taking care of elderly relatives?
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Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Understand the
scope of study in the field of industrial and organizational
psychology * Describe the history of industrial and organizational
psychology
In 2012, people who worked in the United States spent an average of 56.4
hours per week working (Bureau of Labor Statistics—U.S. Department of
Labor, 2013). Sleeping was the only other activity they spent more time
on with an average of 61.2 hours per week. The workday is a significant
portion of workers’ time and energy. It impacts their lives and their
family’s lives in positive and negative physical and psychological ways.
Industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology{: data-type=“term”}
is a branch of psychology that studies how human behavior and psychology
affect work and how they are affected by work.
Industrial and organizational psychologists work in four main contexts:
academia, government, consulting firms, and business. Most I-O
psychologists have a master’s or doctorate degree. The field of I-O
psychology can be divided into three broad areas
([link] and
[link]): industrial, organizational, and
human factors. Industrial psychology{: data-type=“term”} is
concerned with describing job requirements and assessing individuals for
their ability to meet those requirements. In addition, once employees
are hired, industrial psychology studies and develops ways to train,
evaluate, and respond to those evaluations. As a consequence of its
concern for candidate characteristics, industrial psychology must also
consider issues of legality regarding discrimination in hiring.
Organizational psychology{: data-type=“term”} is a discipline
interested in how the relationships among employees affect those
employees and the performance of a business. This includes studying
worker satisfaction, motivation, and commitment. This field also studies
management, leadership, and organizational culture, as well as how an
organization’s structures, management and leadership styles, social
norms, and role expectations affect individual behavior. As a result of
its interest in worker wellbeing and relationships, organizational
psychology also considers the subjects of harassment, including sexual
harassment, and workplace violence. Human factors psychology{:
data-type=“term”} is the study of how workers interact with the tools of
work and how to design those tools to optimize workers’ productivity,
safety, and health. These studies can involve interactions as
straightforward as the fit of a desk, chair, and computer to a human
having to sit on the chair at the desk using the computer for several
hours each day. They can also include the examination of how humans
interact with complex displays and their ability to interpret them
accurately and quickly. In Europe, this field is referred to as
ergonomics.
Industrial and organizational psychology had its origins in the early
20th century. Several influential early psychologists studied issues
that today would be categorized as industrial psychology: James Cattell
(1860–1944) at Columbia, Hugo Münsterberg (1863–1916) at Harvard, Walter
Dill Scott (1869–1955) at Northwestern, Robert Yerkes (1876–1956) and
Walter Bingham (1880–1952) at Dartmouth, and Lillian Gilbreth
(1878–1972) at Purdue. Cattell, Münsterberg, and Scott had been students
of Wilhelm Wundt, the father of experimental psychology. Some of these
researchers had been involved in work in the area of industrial
psychology before World War I. Cattell’s contribution to industrial
psychology is largely reflected in his founding of a psychological
consulting company, which is still operating today called the
Psychological Corporation, and in the accomplishments of students at
Columbia in the area of industrial psychology. In 1913, Münsterberg
published Psychology and Industrial Efficiency, which covered topics
such as employee selection, employee training, and effective
advertising.
Scottpastehere was one of the first
psychologists to apply psychology to advertising, management, and
personnel selection. In 1903, Scott published two books: The Theory of
Advertising and Psychology of Advertising. They are the first books to
describe the use of psychology in the business world. By 1911 he
published two more books, Influencing Men in Business and Increasing
Human Efficiency in Business. In 1916 a newly formed division in the
Carnegie Institute of Technology hired Scott to conduct applied research
on employee selection (Katzell & Austin, 1992).
The focus of all this research was in what we now know as industrial
psychology; it was only later in the century that the field of
organizational psychology developed as an experimental science (Katzell
& Austin, 1992). In addition to their academic positions, these
researchers also worked directly for businesses as consultants.
The involvement of the United States in World War I in April 1917
catalyzed the participation in the military effort of psychologists
working in this area. At that time Yerkes was the president of the
25-year-old American Psychological Association (APA){:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}. The APA is a professional association in
the United States for clinical and research psychologists. Today the APA
performs a number of functions including holding conferences,
accrediting university degree programs, and publishing scientific
journals. Yerkes organized a group under the Surgeon General’s Office
(SGO) that developed methods for screening and selecting enlisted men.
They developed the Army Alpha test to measure mental abilities. The Army
Beta test was a non-verbal form of the test that was administered to
illiterate and non-English-speaking draftees. Scott and Bingham
organized a group under the Adjutant General’s Office (AGO) with the
goal to develop selection methods for officers. They created a catalogue
of occupational needs for the Army, essentially a job-description system
and a system of performance ratings and occupational skill tests for
officers (Katzell & Austin, 1992).
After the war, work on personnel selection continued. For example,
Millicent Pond, who received a PhD from Yale University, worked at
several businesses and was director of employment test research at
Scoville Manufacturing Company. She researched the selection of factory
workers, comparing the results of pre-employment tests with various
indicators of job performance. These studies were published in a series
of research articles in the Journal of Personnel Research in the late
1920s (Vinchur & Koppes, 2014).
From 1929 to 1932 Elton Mayo (1880–1949) and his colleagues began a
series of studies at a plant near Chicago, Western Electric’s Hawthorne
Works ([link]). This long-term project
took industrial psychology beyond just employee selection and placement
to a study of more complex problems of interpersonal relations,
motivation, and organizational dynamics. These studies mark the origin
of organizational psychology. They began as research into the effects of
the physical work environment (e.g., level of lighting in a factory),
but the researchers found that the psychological and social factors in
the factory were of more interest than the physical factors. These
studies also examined how human interaction factors, such as
supervisorial style, enhanced or decreased productivity.
{: #CNX_Psych_13_01_Hawthorne}
Analysis of the findings by later researchers led to the term the
Hawthorne effect{: data-type=“term”}, which describes the increase
in performance of individuals who are noticed, watched, and paid
attention to by researchers or supervisors
[link]). What the original researchers
found was that any change in a variable, such as lighting levels, led to
an improvement in productivity; this was true even when the change was
negative, such as a return to poor lighting. The effect faded when the
attention faded (Roethlisberg & Dickson, 1939). The Hawthorne-effect
concept endures today as an important experimental consideration in many
fields and a factor that has to be controlled for in an experiment. In
other words, an experimental treatment of some kind may produce an
effect simply because it involves greater attention of the researchers
on the participants (McCarney et al., 2007).
{: #CNX_Psych_13_01_Employees}
See also
Watch this video to hear first-hand
accounts of the original Hawthorne studies from those who
participated in the research.
In the 1930s, researchers began to study employees’ feelings about their
jobs. Kurt Lewin also conducted research on the effects of various
leadership styles, team structure, and team dynamics (Katzell & Austin,
1992). Lewin is considered the founder of social psychology and much of
his work and that of his students produced results that had important
influences in organizational psychology. Lewin and his students’
research included an important early study that used children to study
the effect of leadership style on aggression, group dynamics, and
satisfaction (Lewin, Lippitt, & White, 1939). Lewin was also responsible
for coining the term group dynamics, and he was involved in studies of
group interactions, cooperation, competition, and communication that
bear on organizational psychology.
Parallel to these studies in industrial and organizational psychology,
the field of human factors psychology was also developing. Frederick
Taylorpastehere was an engineer who saw
that if one could redesign the workplace there would be an increase in
both output for the company and wages for the workers. In 1911 he put
forward his theory in a book titled, The Principles of Scientific
Management ([link]). His book examines
management styles, personnel selection and training, as well as the work
itself, using time and motion studies.
{:
#CNX_Psych_13_01_Taylor}
One of the examples of Taylor’s theory in action involved workers
handling heavy iron ingots. Taylor showed that the workers could be more
productive by taking work rests. This method of rest increased worker
productivity from 12.5 to 47.0 tons moved per day with less reported
fatigue as well as increased wages for the workers who were paid by the
ton. At the same time, the company’s cost was reduced from 9.2 cents to
3.9 cents per ton. Despite these increases in productivity, Taylor’s
theory received a great deal of criticism at the time because it was
believed that it would exploit workers and reduce the number of workers
needed. Also controversial was the underlying concept that only a
manager could determine the most efficient method of working, and that
while at work, a worker was incapable of this. Taylor’s theory was
underpinned by the notion that a worker was fundamentally lazy and the
goal of Taylor’s scientific management approach was to maximize
productivity without much concern for worker well-being. His approach
was criticized by unions and those sympathetic to workers (Van De Water,
1997).
Gilbrethpastehere was another influential
I-O psychologist who strove to find ways to increase productivity
([link]). Using time and motion studies,
Gilbreth and her husband, Frank, worked to make workers more efficient
by reducing the number of motions required to perform a task. She not
only applied these methods to industry but also to the home, office,
shops, and other areas. She investigated employee fatigue and time
management stress and found many employees were motivated by money and
job satisfaction. In 1914, Gilbreth wrote the book title, The
Psychology of Management: The Function of the Mind in Determining,
Teaching, and Installing Methods of Least Waste, and she is known as
the mother of modern management. Some of Gilbreth’s contributions are
still in use today: you can thank her for the idea to put shelves inside
on refrigerator doors, and she also came up with the concept of using a
foot pedal to operate the lid of trash can (Gilbreth, 1914, 1998;
Koppes, 1997; Lancaster, 2004). Gilbreth was the first woman to join the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers in 1926, and in 1966 she was
awarded the Hoover Medal of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
Taylor and Gilbreth’s work improved productivity, but these innovations
also improved the fit between technology and the human using it. The
study of machine–human fit is known as ergonomics or human factors
psychology.
World War II also drove the expansion of industrial psychology. Bingham
was hired as the chief psychologist for the War Department (now the
Department of Defense) and developed new systems for job selection,
classification, training, ad performance review, plus methods for team
development, morale change, and attitude change (Katzell & Austin,
1992). Other countries, such as Canada and the United Kingdom, likewise
saw growth in I-O psychology during World War II (McMillan, Stevens, &
Kelloway, 2009). In the years after the war, both industrial psychology
and organizational psychology became areas of significant research
effort. Concerns about the fairness of employment tests arose, and the
ethnic and gender biases in various tests were evaluated with mixed
results. In addition, a great deal of research went into studying job
satisfaction and employee motivation (Katzell & Austin, 1992). Today,
I-O psychology is a diverse and deep field of research and practice, as
you will learn about in the rest of this chapter. The Society for
Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP){: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis}, a division of the APA, lists 8,000 members (SIOP, 2014)
and the Bureau of Labor Statistics—U.S. Department of Labor (2013) has
projected this profession will have the greatest growth of all job
classifications in the 20 years following 2012. On average, a person
with a master’s degree in industrial-organizational psychology will earn
over $80,000 a year, while someone with a doctorate will earn over
$110,000 a year (Khanna, Medsker, & Ginter, 2012).
The field of I-O psychology had its birth in industrial psychology and
the use of psychological concepts to aid in personnel selection.
However, with research such as the Hawthorne study, it was found that
productivity was affected more by human interaction and not physical
factors; the field of industrial psychology expanded to include
organizational psychology. Both WWI and WWII had a strong influence on
the development of an expansion of industrial psychology in the United
States and elsewhere: The tasks the psychologists were assigned led to
development of tests and research in how the psychological concepts
could assist industry and other areas. This movement aided in expanding
industrial psychology to include organizational psychology.
Question
Who was the first psychologist to use psychology in advertising?
Hugo Münsterberg
Elton Mayo
Walter Dill Scott
Walter Bingham {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Which test designed for the Army was used for recruits who were
not fluent in English?
Army Personality
Army Alpha
Army Beta
Army Intelligence {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Which area of I-O psychology measures job satisfaction?
industrial psychology
organizational psychology
human factors psychology
advertising psychology {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which statement best describes the Hawthorne effect?
Giving workers rest periods seems like it should decrease
productivity, but it actually increases productivity.
Social relations among workers have a greater effect on
productivity than physical environment.
Changes in light levels improve working conditions and
therefore increase productivity.
The attention of researchers on subjects causes the effect the
experimenter is looking for. {: type=“a”}
What societal and management attitudes might have caused
organizational psychology to develop later than industrial
psychology?
Answers will vary. The student should allude to the fact that
organizational psychology finds social relations of employees
important and that historically workers were thought of more as
individual machines rather than a social group.
Many of the examples of I-O psychology are applications to
businesses. Name four different non-business contexts that I-O
psychology could impact?
Answers will vary. The student should identify organizations that
are dedicated to accomplishing specific tasks, in the general
sense. Examples are hospitals, non-profit organizations,
government agencies (including the military), law enforcement,
universities, schools, and so on.
branch of psychology that studies how workers interact with the
tools of work and how to design those tools to optimize workers’
productivity, safety, and health ^
branch of psychology that studies job characteristics, applicant
characteristics, and how to match them; also studies employee
training and performance appraisal ^
branch of psychology that studies the interactions between people
working in organizations and the effects of those interactions on
productivity
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the
aspects of employee selection * Describe the kinds of job training
* Describe the approaches to and issues surrounding performance
assessment
The branch of I-O psychology known as industrial psychology focuses on
identifying and matching persons to tasks within an organization. This
involves job analysis{: data-type=“term”}, which means accurately
describing the task or job. Then, organizations must identify the
characteristics of applicants for a match to the job analysis. It also
involves training employees from their first day on the job throughout
their tenure within the organization, and appraising their performance
along the way.
When you read job advertisements, do you ever wonder how the company
comes up with the job description? Often, this is done with the help of
I-O psychologists. There are two related but different approaches to job
analysis—you may be familiar with the results of each as they often
appear on the same job advertisement. The first approach is
task-oriented and lists in detail the tasks that will be performed for
the job. Each task is typically rated on scales for how frequently it is
performed, how difficult it is, and how important it is to the job. The
second approach is worker-oriented. This approach describes the
characteristics required of the worker to successfully perform the job.
This second approach has been called job specification (Dierdorff &
Wilson, 2003). For job specification, the knowledge, skills, and
abilities (KSAs) that the job requires are identified.
Observation, surveys, and interviews are used to obtain the information
required for both types of job analysis. It is possible to observe
someone who is proficient in a position and analyze what skills are
apparent. Another approach used is to interview people presently holding
that position, their peers, and their supervisors to get a consensus of
what they believe are the requirements of the job.
How accurate and reliable is a job analysis? Research suggests that it
can depend on the nature of the descriptions and the source for the job
analysis. For example, Dierdorff & Wilson (2003) found that job analyses
developed from descriptions provided by people holding the job
themselves were the least reliable; however, they did not study or
speculate why this was the case.
The United States Department of Labor maintains a database of previously
compiled job analyses for different jobs and occupations. This allows
the I-O psychologist to access previous analyses for nearly any type of
occupation. This system is called O*Net{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} (accessible at www.online.onetcenter.org). The site is
open and you can see the KSAs that are listed for your own position or
one you might be curious about. Each occupation lists the tasks,
knowledge, skills, abilities, work context, work activities, education
requirements, interests, personality requirements, and work styles that
are deemed necessary for success in that position. You can also see data
on average earnings and projected job growth in that industry.
Once a company identifies potential candidates for a position, the
candidates’ knowledge, skills, and other abilities must be evaluated and
compared with the job description. These evaluations can involve
testing, an interview, and work samples or exercises. You learned about
personality tests in the chapter on personality; in the I-O context,
they are used to identify the personality characteristics of the
candidate in an effort to match those to personality characteristics
that would ensure good performance on the job. For example, a high
rating of agreeableness might be desirable in a customer support
position. However, it is not always clear how best to correlate
personality characteristics with predictions of job performance. It
might be that too high of a score on agreeableness is actually a
hindrance in the customer support position. For example, if a customer
has a misperception about a product or service, agreeing with their
misperception will not ultimately lead to resolution of their complaint.
Any use of personality tests should be accompanied by a verified
assessment of what scores on the test correlate with good performance
(Arthur, Woehr, & Graziano, 2001). Other types of tests that may be
given to candidates include IQ tests, integrity tests, and physical
tests, such as drug tests or physical fitness tests.
See also
Using Cutoff Scores to Determine Job Selection
Many positions require applicants to take tests as part of the
selection process. These can include IQ tests, job-specific skills
tests, or personality tests. The organization may set cutoff scores
(i.e., a score below which a candidate will not move forward) for
each test to determine whether the applicant moves on to the next
stage. For example, there was a case of Robert Jordan, a 49-year-old
college graduate who applied for a position with the police force in
New London, Connecticut. As part of the selection process, Jordan
took the Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT), a test designed to measure
cognitive ability.
Jordan did not make it to the interview stage because his WPT score
of 33, equivalent to an IQ score of 125 (100 is the average IQ
score), was too high. The New London Police department policy is to
not interview anyone who has a WPT score over 27 (equivalent to an IQ
score over 104) because they believe anyone who scores higher would
be bored with police work. The average score for police officers
nationwide is the equivalent of an IQ score of 104 (Jordan v. New
London, 2000; ABC News, 2000).
Jordan sued the police department alleging that his rejection was
discrimination and his civil rights were violated because he was
denied equal protection under the law. The 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of
Appeals upheld a lower court’s decision that the city of New London
did not discriminate against him because the same standards were
applied to everyone who took the exam (The New York Times, 1999).
What do you think? When might universal cutoff points make sense in a
hiring decision, and when might they eliminate otherwise potentially
strong employees?
Most jobs for mid-size to large-size businesses in the United States
require a personal interview as a step in the selection process. Because
interviews are commonly used, they have been the subject of considerable
research by industrial psychologists. Information derived from job
analysis usually forms the basis for the types of questions asked.
Interviews can provide a more dynamic source of information about the
candidate than standard testing measures. Importantly, social factors
and body language can influence the outcome of the interview. These
include influences, such as the degree of similarity of the applicant to
the interviewer and nonverbal behaviors, such as hand gestures, head
nodding, and smiling (Bye, Horverak, Sandal, Sam, & Vivjer, 2014; Rakić,
Steffens, & Mummendey, 2011).
There are two types of interviews: unstructured and structured. In an
unstructured interview, the interviewer may ask different questions of
each different candidate. One candidate might be asked about her career
goals, and another might be asked about his previous work experience. In
an unstructured interview, the questions are often, though not always,
unspecified beforehand. And in an unstructured interview the responses
to questions asked are generally not scored using a standard system. In
a structured interview, the interviewer asks the same questions of every
candidate, the questions are prepared in advance, and the interviewer
uses a standardized rating system for each response. With this approach,
the interviewer can accurately compare two candidates’ interviews. In a
meta-analysis of studies examining the effectiveness of various types of
job interviews, McDaniel, Whetzel, Schmidt & Maurer (1994) found that
structured interviews were more effective at predicting subsequent job
performance of the job candidate.
Preparing for the Job Interview
You might be wondering if psychology research can tell you how to
succeed in a job interviewpastehere. As
you can imagine, most research is concerned with the employer’s
interest in choosing the most appropriate candidate for the job, a
goal that makes sense for the candidate too. But suppose you are not
the only qualified candidate for the job; is there a way to increase
your chances of being hired? A limited amount of research has
addressed this question.
As you might expect, nonverbal cues are important in an interview.
Liden, Martin, & Parsons (1993) found that lack of eye contact and
smiling on the part of the applicant led to lower applicant ratings.
Studies of impression management on the part of an applicant have
shown that self-promotion behaviors generally have a positive impact
on interviewers (Gilmore & Ferris, 1989). Different personality types
use different forms of impression management, for example extroverts
use verbal self-promotion, and applicants high in agreeableness use
non-verbal methods such as smiling and eye contact. Self-promotion
was most consistently related with a positive outcome for the
interview, particularly if it was related to the candidate’s
person–job fit. However, it is possible to overdo self-promotion with
experienced interviewers (Howard & Ferris, 1996). Barrick, Swider &
Stewart (2010) examined the effect of first impressions during the
rapport building that typically occurs before an interview begins.
They found that initial judgments by interviewers during this period
were related to job offers and that the judgments were about the
candidate’s competence and not just likability. Levine and Feldman
(2002) looked at the influence of several nonverbal behaviors in mock
interviews on candidates’ likability and projections of competence.
Likability was affected positively by greater smiling behavior.
Interestingly, other behaviors affected likability differently
depending on the gender of the applicant. Men who displayed higher
eye contact were less likable; women were more likable when they made
greater eye contact. However, for this study male applicants were
interviewed by men and female applicants were interviewed by women.
In a study carried out in a real setting, DeGroot & Gooty (2009)
found that nonverbal cues affected interviewers’ assessments about
candidates. They looked at visual cues, which can often be modified
by the candidate and vocal (nonverbal) cues, which are more difficult
to modify. They found that interviewer judgment was positively
affected by visual and vocal cues of conscientiousness, visual and
vocal cues of openness to experience, and vocal cues of extroversion.
What is the take home message from the limited research that has been
done? Learn to be aware of your behavior during an interview. You can
do this by practicing and soliciting feedback from mock interviews.
Pay attention to any nonverbal cues you are projecting and work at
presenting nonverbal cures that project confidence and positive
personality traits. And finally, pay attention to the first
impression you are making as it may also have an impact in the
interview.
Training is an important element of success and performance in many
jobs. Most jobs begin with an orientation period during which the new
employee is provided information regarding the company history,
policies, and administrative protocols such as time tracking, benefits,
and reporting requirements. An important goal of orientation training is
to educate the new employee about the organizational culture, the
values, visions, hierarchies, norms and ways the company’s employees
interact—essentially how the organization is run, how it operates, and
how it makes decisions. There will also be training that is specific to
the job the individual was hired to do, or training during the
individual’s period of employment that teaches aspects of new duties, or
how to use new physical or software tools. Much of these kinds of
training will be formalized for the employee; for example, orientation
training is often accomplished using software presentations, group
presentations by members of the human resources department or with
people in the new hire’s department
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_13_02_Training}
Mentoring is a form of informal training in which an experienced
employee guides the work of a new employee. In some situations, mentors
will be formally assigned to a new employee, while in others a mentoring
relationship may develop informally.
Mentoring effects on the mentor and the employee being mentored, the
protégé, have been studied in recent years. In a review of mentoring
studies, Eby, Allen, Evans, Ng, & DuBois (2008) found significant but
small effects of mentoring on performance (i.e., behavioral outcomes),
motivation and satisfaction, and actual career outcomes. In a more
detailed review, Allen, Eby, Poteet, Lentz, & Lima (2004) found that
mentoring positively affected a protégé’s compensation and number of
promotions compared with non-mentored employees. In addition, protégés
were more satisfied with their careers and had greater job satisfaction.
All of the effects were small but significant. Eby, Durley, Evans, &
Ragins (2006) examined mentoring effects on the mentor and found that
mentoring was associated with greater job satisfaction and
organizational commitment. Gentry, Weber, & Sadri (2008) found that
mentoring was positively related with performance ratings by
supervisors. Allen, Lentz, & Day (2006) found in a comparison of mentors
and non-mentors that mentoring led to greater reported salaries and
promotions.
Mentoring is recognized to be particularly important to the career
success of women (McKeen & Bujaki, 2007) by creating connections to
informal networks, adopting a style of interaction that male managers
are comfortable with, and with overcoming discrimination in job
promotions.
Gender combinations in mentoring relationships are also an area of
active study. Ragins & Cotton (1999) studied the effects of gender on
the outcomes of mentoring relationships and found that protégés with a
history of male mentors had significantly higher compensation especially
for male protégés. The study found that female mentor–male protégé
relationships were considerably rarer than the other gender
combinations.
In an examination of a large number of studies on the effectiveness of
organizational training to meet its goals, Arthur, Bennett, Edens, and
Bell (2003) found that training was, in fact, effective when measured by
the immediate response of the employee to the training effort,
evaluation of learning outcomes (e.g., a test at the end of the
training), behavioral measurements of job activities by a supervisor,
and results-based criteria (e.g., productivity or profits). The examined
studies represented diverse forms of training including
self-instruction, lecture and discussion, and computer assisted
training.
Industrial and organizational psychologists are typically involved in
designing performance-appraisal systems for organizations. These systems
are designed to evaluate whether each employee is performing her job
satisfactorily. Industrial and organizational psychologists study,
research, and implement ways to make work evaluations as fair and
positive as possible; they also work to decrease the subjectivity
involved with performance ratings. Fairly evaluated work helps employees
do their jobs better, improves the likelihood of people being in the
right jobs for their talents, maintains fairness, and identifies company
and individual training needs.
Performance appraisals{: data-type=“term”} are typically
documented several times a year, often with a formal process and an
annual face-to-face brief meeting between an employee and his
supervisor. It is important that the original job analysis play a role
in performance appraisal as well as any goals that have been set by the
employee or by the employee and supervisor. The meeting is often used
for the supervisor to communicate specific concerns about the employee’s
performance and to positively reinforce elements of good performance. It
may also be used to discuss specific performance rewards, such as a pay
increase, or consequences of poor performance, such as a probationary
period. Part of the function of performance appraisals for the
organization is to document poor performance to bolster decisions to
terminate an employee.
Performance appraisals are becoming more complex processes within
organizations and are often used to motivate employees to improve
performance and expand their areas of competence, in addition to
assessing their job performance. In this capacity, performance
appraisals can be used to identify opportunities for training or whether
a particular training program has been successful. One approach to
performance appraisal is called 360-degree feedback appraisal
([link]). In this system, the
employee’s appraisal derives from a combination of ratings by
supervisors, peers, employees supervised by the employee, and from the
employee herself. Occasionally, outside observers may be used as well,
such as customers. The purpose of 360-degree system is to give the
employee (who may be a manager) and supervisor different perspectives of
the employee’s job performance; the system should help employees make
improvements through their own efforts or through training. The system
is also used in a traditional performance-appraisal context, providing
the supervisor with more information with which to make decisions about
the employee’s position and compensation (Tornow, 1993a).
{:
#CNX_Psych_13_02_360Degree}
Few studies have assessed the effectiveness of 360-degree methods, but
Atkins and Wood (2002) found that the self and peer ratings were
unreliable as an assessment of an employee’s performance and that even
supervisors tended to underrate employees that gave themselves modest
feedback ratings. However, a different perspective sees this variability
in ratings as a positive in that it provides for greater learning on the
part of the employees as they and their supervisor discuss the reasons
for the discrepancies (Tornow, 1993b).
In theory, performance appraisals should be an asset for an organization
wishing to achieve its goals, and most employees will actually solicit
feedback regarding their jobs if it is not offered (DeNisi & Kluger,
2000). However, in practice, many performance evaluations are disliked
by organizations, employees, or both (Fletcher, 2001), and few of them
have been adequately tested to see if they do in fact improve
performance or motivate employees (DeNisi & Kluger, 2000). One of the
reasons evaluations fail to accomplish their purpose in an organization
is that performance appraisal systems are often used incorrectly or are
of an inappropriate type for an organization’s particular culture
(Schraeder, Becton, & Portis, 2007). An organization’s culture is how
the organization is run, how it operates, and how it makes decisions. It
is based on the collective values, hierarchies, and how individuals
within the organization interact. Examining the effectiveness of
performance appraisal systems in particular organizations and the
effectiveness of training for the implementation of the performance
appraisal system is an active area of research in industrial psychology
(Fletcher, 2001).
In an ideal hiring process, an organization would generate a job
analysis that accurately reflects the requirements of the position, and
it would accurately assess candidates’ KSAs to determine who the best
individual is to carry out the job’s requirements. For many reasons,
hiring decisions in the real world are often made based on factors other
than matching a job analysis to KSAs. As mentioned earlier, interview
rankings can be influenced by other factors: similarity to the
interviewer (Bye, Horverak, Sandal, Sam, & Vijver, 2014) and the
regional accent of the interviewee (Rakić, Steffens, & Mummendey 2011).
A study by Agerström & Rooth (2011) examined hiring managers’ decisions
to invite equally qualified normal-weight and obese job applicants to an
interview. The decisions of the hiring managers were based on
photographs of the two applicants. The study found that hiring managers
that scored high on a test of negative associations with overweight
people displayed a bias in favor of inviting the equally qualified
normal-weight applicant but not inviting the obese applicant. The
association test measures automatic or subconscious associations between
an individual’s negative or positive values and, in this case, the
body-weight attribute. A meta-analysis of experimental studies found
that physical attractiveness benefited individuals in various
job-related outcomes such as hiring, promotion, and performance review
(Hosoda, Stone-Romero, & Coats, 2003). They also found that the strength
of the benefit appeared to be decreasing with time between the late
1970s and the late 1990s.
Some hiring criteria may be related to a particular group an applicant
belongs to and not individual abilities. Unless membership in that group
directly affects potential job performance, a decision based on group
membership is discriminatory ([link]).
To combat hiring discriminationpastehere,
in the United States there are numerous city, state, and federal laws
that prevent hiring based on various group-membership criteria. For
example, did you know it is illegal for a potential employer to ask your
age in an interview? Did you know that an employer cannot ask you
whether you are married, a U.S. citizen, have disabilities, or what your
race or religion is? They cannot even ask questions that might shed some
light on these attributes, such as where you were born or who you live
with. These are only a few of the restrictions that are in place to
prevent discrimination in hiring. In the United States, federal
anti-discrimination laws are administered by the U.S. Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC){:
data-type=“term”} is responsible for enforcing federal laws that make it
illegal to discriminate against a job applicant or an employee because
of the person’s race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy),
national origin, age (40 or older), disability, or genetic information.
[link] provides some of the legal
language from laws that have been passed to prevent discrimination.
{:
#CNX_Psych_13_02_Discrimin2}
The United States has several specific laws regarding fairness and
avoidance of discrimination. The Equal Pay Act requires that equal pay
for men and women in the same workplace who are performing equal work.
Despite the law, persistent inequities in earnings between men and women
exist. Corbett & Hill (2012) studied one facet of the gender gap by
looking at earnings in the first year after college in the United
States. Just comparing the earnings of women to men, women earn about 82
cents for every dollar a man earns in their first year out of college.
However, some of this difference can be explained by education, career,
and life choices, such as choosing majors with lower earning potential
or specific jobs within a field that have less responsibility. When
these factors were corrected the study found an unexplained
seven-cents-on-the-dollar gap in the first year after college that can
be attributed to gender discrimination in pay. This approach to analysis
of the gender pay gap, called the human capital model, has been
criticized. Lips (2013) argues that the education, career, and life
choices can, in fact, be constrained by necessities imposed by gender
discrimination. This suggests that removing these factors entirely from
the gender gap equation leads to an estimate of the size of the pay gap
that is too small.
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 makes it illegal to treat
individuals unfavorably because of their race or color of their skin: An
employer cannot discriminate based on skin color, hair texture, or other
immutable characteristics{: data-type=“term”}, which are traits of
an individual that are fundamental to her identity, in hiring, benefits,
promotions, or termination of employees. The Pregnancy Discrimination
Act of 1978 amends the Civil Rights Act; it prohibits job (e.g.,
employment, pay, and termination) discrimination of a woman because she
is pregnant as long as she can perform the work required.
The Supreme Court ruling in Griggs v. Duke Power Co. made it illegal
under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act to include educational
requirements in a job description (e.g., high school diploma) that
negatively impacts one race over another if the requirement cannot be
shown to be directly related to job performance. The EEOC (2014)
received more than 94,000 charges of various kinds of employment
discrimination in 2013. Many of the filings are for multiple forms of
discrimination and include charges of retaliation for making a claim,
which itself is illegal. Only a small fraction of these claims become
suits filed in a federal court, although the suits may represent the
claims of more than one person. In 2013, there were 148 suits filed in
federal courts.
See also
In 2011, the U.S. Supreme Court decided a case in which women
plaintiffs were attempting to group together in a class-action suit
against Walmart for gender discrimination in promotion and pay. The
case was important because it was the only practical way for
individual women who felt they had been discriminated against to
sustain a court battle for redress of their claims. The Court
ultimately decided against the plaintiffs, and the right to a
class-action suit was denied. However, the case itself effectively
publicized the issue of gender discrimination in employment. This
video discusses the case history
and issues. This PBS NewsHour
presents the arguments in the court case.
Federal legislation does not protect employees in the private sector
from discrimination related to sexual orientation and gender identity.
These groups include lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender
individuals. There is evidence of discrimination derived from surveys of
workers, studies of complaint filings, wage comparison studies, and
controlled job-interview studies (Badgett, Sears, Lau, & Ho, 2009).
Federal legislation protects federal employees from such discrimination;
the District of Columbia and 20 states have laws protecting public and
private employees from discrimination for sexual orientation (American
Civil Liberties Union, n.d). Most of the states with these laws also
protect against discrimination based on gender identity. Gender
identity, as discussed when you learned about sexual behavior, refers to
one’s sense of being male or female.
Many cities and counties have adopted local legislation preventing
discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity (Human
Rights Campaign, 2013a), and some companies have recognized a benefit to
explicitly stating that their hiring must not discriminate on these
bases (Human Rights Campaign, 2013b).
The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA){: data-type=“term”} of
1990 states people may not be discriminated against due to the nature of
their disability. A disability is defined as a physical or mental
impairment that limits one or more major life activities such as
hearing, walking, and breathing. An employer must make reasonable
accommodations for the performance of a disabled employee’s job. This
might include making the work facility handicapped accessible with
ramps, providing readers for blind personnel, or allowing for more
frequent breaks. The ADA has now been expanded to include individuals
with alcoholism, former drug use, obesity, or psychiatric disabilities.
The premise of the law is that disabled individuals can contribute to an
organization and they cannot be discriminated against because of their
disabilities (O’Keefe & Bruyere, 1994).
The Civil Rights Act and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act make
provisions for bona fide occupational qualifications (BFOQs){:
data-type=“term”}, which are requirements of certain occupations for
which denying an individual employment would otherwise violate the law.
For example, there may be cases in which religion, national origin, age,
and sex are bona fide occupational qualifications. There are no BFOQ
exceptions that apply to race, although the first amendment protects
artistic expressions, such as films, in making race a requirement of a
role. Clearcut examples of BFOQs would be hiring someone of a specific
religion for a leadership position in a worship facility, or for an
executive position in religiously affiliated institutions, such as the
president of a university with religious ties. Age has been determined
to be a BFOQ for airline pilots; hence, there are mandatory retirement
ages for safety reasons. Sex has been determined as a BFOQ for guards in
male prisons.
Sex (gender) is the most common reason for invoking a BFOQ as a defense
against accusing an employer of discrimination (Manley, 2009). Courts
have established a three-part test for sex-related BFOQs that are often
used in other types of legal cases for determining whether a BFOQ
exists. The first of these is whether all or substantially all women
would be unable to perform a job. This is the reason most physical
limitations, such as “able to lift 30 pounds,” fail as reasons to
discriminate because most women are able to lift this weight. The second
test is the “essence of the business” test, in which having to choose
the other gender would undermine the essence of the business operation.
This test was the reason the now defunct Pan American World Airways
(i.e., Pan Am) was told it could not hire only female flight attendants.
Hiring men would not have undermined the essense of this business. On a
deeper level, this means that hiring cannot be made purely on customers’
or others’ preferences. The third and final test is whether the employer
cannot make reasonable alternative accomodations, such as reassigning
staff so that a woman does not have to work in a male-only part of a
jail or other gender-specific facility. Privacy concerns are a major
reason why discrimination based on gender is upheld by the courts, for
example in situations such as hires for nursing or custodial staff
(Manley, 2009). Most cases of BFOQs are decided on a case-by-case basis
and these court decisions inform policy and future case decisions.
See also
Hooters and BFOQ Laws
{: #CNX_Psych_13_02_Hooters}
The restaurant chain Hooters, which hires only female wait staff and
has them dress in a sexually provocative manner, is commonly cited as
a discriminatory employer. The chain would argue that the female
employees are an essential part of their business in that they market
through sex appeal and the wait staff attract customers. Men have
filed discrimination charges against Hooters in the past for not
hiring them as wait staff simply because they are men. The chain has
avoided a court decision on their hiring practices by settling out of
court with the plaintiffs in each case. Do you think their practices
violate the Civil Rights Act? See if you can apply the three court
tests to this case and make a decision about whether a case that went
to trial would find in favor of the plaintiff or the chain.
Industrial psychology studies the attributes of jobs, applicants of
those jobs, and methods for assessing fit to a job. These procedures
include job analysis, applicant testing, and interviews. It also studies
and puts into place procedures for the orientation of new employees and
ongoing training of employees. The process of hiring employees can be
vulnerable to bias, which is illegal, and industrial psychologists must
develop methods for adhering to the law in hiring. Performance appraisal
systems are an active area of research and practice in industrial
psychology.
Question
Which of the following questions is illegal to ask in a job
interview in the United States?
Which university did you attend?
Which state were you born in?
Do you have a commercial driver’s license?
What salary would you expect for this position? {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which of the following items is not a part of KSAs?
aspiration
knowledge
skill
other abilities {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Who is responsible for enforcing federal laws that make it illegal
to discriminate against a job applicant?
Americans with Disabilities Act
Supreme Court of the United States
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology {:
type=“a”}
Construct a good interview question for a position of your
choosing. The question should relate to a specific skill
requirement for the position and you will need to include the
criteria for rating the applicants answer.
Answers will vary depending on the occupation and question. The
question should relate to a specific skill for the job and the
rating should relate to how the answer demonstrates the skill.
What might be useful mechanisms for avoiding bias during
employment interviews?
Answers will vary, but they could include clear measurement
standards for answer and applicant quality, ensuring diversity in
interviewers or multiple interviews with different diverse
interviewers, and clear education about the nature of bias for
interviewers and those who make hiring decisions.
requirement of certain occupations for which denying an individual
employment would otherwise violate the law, such as requirements
concerning religion or sex ^
traits that employers cannot use to discriminate in hiring,
benefits, promotions, or termination; these traits are fundamental
to one’s personal identity (e.g. skin color and hair texture) ^
evaluation of an employee’s success or lack of success at
performing the duties of the job ^
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
responsible for enforcing federal laws that make it illegal to
discriminate against a job applicant or an employee because of the
person’s race, color, religion, sex (including pregnancy),
national origin, age (40 or older), disability, or genetic
information
Copyright Notice
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define
organizational psychology * Explain the measurement and determinants
of job satisfaction * Describe key elements of management and
leadership * Explain the significance of organizational culture
Organizational psychology is the second major branch of study and
practice within the discipline of industrial and organizational
psychology. In organizational psychology{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis}, the focus is on social interactions and their effect on
the individual and on the functioning of the organization. In this
section, you will learn about the work organizational psychologists have
done to understand job satisfaction, different styles of management,
different styles of leadership, organizational culture, and teamwork.
Some people love their jobs, some people tolerate their jobs, and some
people cannot stand their jobs. Job satisfaction{:
data-type=“term”} describes the degree to which individuals enjoy their
job. It was described by Edwin Locke (1976) as the state of feeling
resulting from appraising one’s job experiences. While job satisfaction
results from both how we think about our work (our cognition) and how we
feel about our work (our affect) (Saari & Judge, 2004), it is described
in terms of affect. Job satisfaction is impacted by the work itself, our
personality, and the culture we come from and live in (Saari & Judge,
2004).
Job satisfaction is typically measured after a change in an
organization, such as a shift in the management model, to assess how the
change affects employees. It may also be routinely measured by an
organization to assess one of many factors expected to affect the
organization’s performance. In addition, polling companies like Gallup
regularly measure job satisfaction on a national scale to gather broad
information on the state of the economy and the workforce (Saad, 2012).
Job satisfaction is measured using questionnaires that employees
complete. Sometimes a single question might be asked in a very
straightforward way to which employees respond using a rating scale,
such as a Likert scale, which was discussed in the chapter on
personality. A Likert scale (typically) provides five possible answers
to a statement or question that allows respondents to indicate their
positive-to-negative strength of agreement or strength of feeling
regarding the question or statement. Thus the possible responses to a
question such as “How satisfied are you with your job today?” might be
“Very satisfied,” “Somewhat satisfied,” “Neither satisfied, nor
dissatisfied,” “Somewhat dissatisfied,” and “Very dissatisfied.” More
commonly the survey will ask a number of questions about the employee’s
satisfaction to determine more precisely why he is satisfied or
dissatisfied. Sometimes these surveys are created for specific jobs; at
other times, they are designed to apply to any job. Job satisfaction can
be measured at a global level, meaning how satisfied in general the
employee is with work, or at the level of specific factors intended to
measure which aspects of the job lead to satisfaction
([link]).
Factors Involved in Job Satisfaction–Dissatisfaction
Factor
Description
Autonomy
Individual responsibility, control over decisions
Work content
Variety, challenge, role clarity
Communication
Feedback
Financial rewards
Salary and benefits
Growth and development
Personal growth, training, education
Promotion
Career advancement opportunity
Coworkers
Professional relations or adequacy
Supervision and feedback
Support, recognition, fairness
Workload
Time pressure, tedium
Work demands
Extra work requirements, insecurity of position
Research has suggested that the work-content factor, which includes
variety, difficulty level, and role clarity of the job, is the most
strongly predictive factor of overall job satisfaction (Saari & Judge,
2004). In contrast, there is only a weak correlation between pay level
and job satisfaction (Judge, Piccolo, Podsakoff, Shaw, & Rich, 2010).
Judge et al. (2010) suggest that individuals adjust or adapt to higher
pay levels: Higher pay no longer provides the satisfaction the
individual may have initially felt when her salary increased.
Why should we care about job satisfaction? Or more specifically, why
should an employer care about job satisfaction? Measures of job
satisfaction are somewhat correlated with job performance; in
particular, they appear to relate to organizational citizenship or
discretionary behaviors on the part of an employee that further the
goals of the organization (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). Job
satisfaction is related to general life satisfaction, although there has
been limited research on how the two influence each other or whether
personality and cultural factors affect both job and general life
satisfaction. One carefully controlled study suggested that the
relationship is reciprocal: Job satisfaction affects life satisfaction
positively, and vice versa (Judge & Watanabe, 1993). Of course,
organizations cannot control life satisfaction’s influence on job
satisfaction. Job satisfaction, specifically low job satisfaction, is
also related to withdrawal behaviors, such as leaving a job or
absenteeism (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012). The relationship with
turnover itself, however, is weak (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012).
Finally, it appears that job satisfaction is related to organizational
performance, which suggests that implementing organizational changes to
improve employee job satisfaction will improve organizational
performance (Judge & Kammeyer-Mueller, 2012).
There is opportunity for more research in the area of job satisfaction.
For example, Weiss (2002) suggests that the concept of job satisfaction
measurements have combined both emotional and cognitive concepts, and
measurements would be more reliable and show better relationships with
outcomes like performance if the measurement of job satisfaction
separated these two possible elements of job satisfaction.
Tip
Job Satisfaction in Federal Government Agencies
A 2013 study of job satisfaction in the U.S. federal government found
indexes of job satisfaction plummeting compared to the private
sector. The largest factor in the decline was satisfaction with pay,
followed by training and development opportunities. The Partnership
for Public Service, a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization, has
conducted research on federal employee job satisfaction since 2003.
Its primary goal is to improve the federal government’s management.
However, the results also provide information to those interested in
obtaining employment with the federal government.
Among large agencies, the highest job satisfaction ranking went to
NASA, followed by the Department of Commerce and the intelligence
community. The lowest scores went to the Department of Homeland
Security.
The data used to derive the job satisfaction score come from three
questions on the Federal Employee Viewpoint Survey. The questions
are:
I recommend my organization as a good place to work.
Considering everything, how satisfied are you with your job?
Considering everything, how satisfied are you with your
organization? {: type=“1”}
The questions have a range of six possible answers, spanning a range
of strong agreement or satisfaction to strong disagreement or
dissatisfaction. How would you answer these questions with regard to
your own job? Would these questions adequately assess your job
satisfaction?
You can explore the Best Places To Work In The Federal Government
study at their Web site: www.bestplacestowork.org. The Office of
Personnel Management also produces a report based on their survey:
www.fedview.opm.gov.
Job stresspastehere affects job
satisfaction. Job stress, or job strain, is caused by specific stressors
in an occupation. Stress can be an ambigious term as it is used in
common language. Stress is the perception and response of an individual
to events judged as ovewhelming or threatening to the individual’s
well-being (Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005). The events themselves are the
stressors. Stress is a result of an employee’s perception that the
demands placed on them exceed their ability to meet them (Gyllensten &
Palmer, 2005), such as having to fill multiple roles in a job or life in
general, workplace role ambiguity, lack of career progress, lack of job
security, lack of control over work outcomes, isolation, work overload,
discrimination, harrassment, and bullying (Colligan & Higgins, 2005).
The stressors are different for women than men and these differences are
a significant area of research (Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005). Job stress
leads to poor employee health, job performance, and family life
(Colligan & Higgins, 2005).
As already mentioned, job insecurity contributes significantly to job
stress. Two increasing threats to job security are downsizing events and
corporate mergers. Businesses typically involve I-O psychologists in
planning for, implementing, and managing these types of organizational
change.
Downsizing{: data-type=“term”} is an increasingly common response
to a business’s pronounced failure to achieve profit goals, and it
involves laying off a significant percentage of the company’s employees.
Industrial-organizational psychologists may be involved in all aspects
of downsizing: how the news is delivered to employees (both those being
let go and those staying), how laid-off employees are supported (e.g.,
separation packages), and how retained employees are supported. The
latter is important for the organization because downsizing events
affect the retained employee’s intent to quit, organizational
commitment, and job insecurity (Ugboro, 2006).
In addition to downsizing as a way of responding to outside strains on a
business, corporations often grow larger by combining with other
businesses. This can be accomplished through a merger (i.e., the joining
of two organizations of equal power and status) or an acquisition (i.e.,
one organization purchases the other). In an acquisition, the purchasing
organization is usually the more powerful or dominant partner. In both
cases, there is usually a duplication of services between the two
companies, such as two accounting departments and two sales forces. Both
departments must be merged, which commonly involves a reduction of staff
([link]). This leads to organizational
processes and stresses similar to those that occur in downsizing events.
Mergers require determining how the organizational culture will change,
to which employees also must adjust (van Knippenberg, van Knippenberg,
Monden, & de Lima, 2002). There can be additional stress on workers as
they lose their connection to the old organization and try to make
connections with the new combined group (Amiot, Terry, Jimmieson, &
Callan, 2006). Research in this area focuses on understanding employee
reactions and making practical recommendations for managing these
organizational changes.
Many people juggle the demands of work life with the demands of their
home life, whether it be caring for children or taking care of an
elderly parent; this is known as work-family balance{:
data-type=“term”}. We might commonly think about work interfering with
family, but it is also the case that family responsibilities may
conflict with work obligations (Carlson, Kacmar, & Williams, 2000).
Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) first identified three sources of
work–family conflicts:
time devoted to work makes it difficult to fulfill requirements of
family, or vice versa,
strain from participation in work makes it difficult to fulfill
requirements of family, or vice versa, and
specific behaviors required by work make it difficult to fulfill the
requirements of family, or vice versa.
Women often have greater responsibility for family demands, including
home care, child care, and caring for aging parents, yet men in the
United States are increasingly assuming a greater share of domestic
responsibilities. However, research has documented that women report
greater levels of stress from work–family conflict (Gyllensten & Palmer,
2005).
There are many ways to decrease work–family conflict and improve
people’s job satisfaction (Posig & Kickul, 2004). These include support
in the home, which can take various forms: emotional (listening),
practical (help with chores). Workplace support can include
understanding supervisors, flextime, leave with pay, and telecommuting.
Flextime usually involves a requirement of core hours spent in the
workplace around which the employee may schedule his arrival and
departure from work to meet family demands. Telecommuting{:
data-type=“term”} involves employees working at home and setting their
own hours, which allows them to work during different parts of the day,
and to spend part of the day with their family. Recall that Yahoo! had a
policy of allowing employees to telecommute and then rescinded the
policy. There are also organizations that have onsite daycare centers,
and some companies even have onsite fitness centers and health clinics.
In a study of the effectiveness of different coping methods, Lapierre &
Allen (2006) found practical support from home more important than
emotional support. They also found that immediate-supervisor support for
a worker significantly reduced work–family conflict through such
mechanisms as allowing an employee the flexibility needed to fulfill
family obligations. In contrast, flextime did not help with coping and
telecommuting actually made things worse, perhaps reflecting the fact
that being at home intensifies the conflict between work and family
because with the employee in the home, the demands of family are more
evident.
Posig & Kickul (2004) identify exemplar corporations with policies
designed to reduce work–family conflict. Examples include IBM’s policy
of three years of job-guaranteed leave after the birth of a child,
Lucent Technologies offer of one year’s childbirth leave at half pay,
and SC Johnson’s program of concierge services for daytime errands.
See also
Glassdoor is a website that
posts job satisfaction reviews for different careers and
organizations. Use this site to research possible careers and/or
organizations that interest you.
A significant portion of I-O research focuses on management and human
relations. Douglas McGregor (1960) combined scientific
management{: data-type=“term”} (a theory of management that analyzes
and synthesizes workflows with the main objective of improving economic
efficiency, especially labor productivity) and human relations into the
notion of leadership behavior. His theory lays out two different styles
called Theory X and Theory Y. In the Theory X{: data-type=“term”}
approach to management, managers assume that most people dislike work
and are not innately self-directed. Theory X managers perceive employees
as people who prefer to be led and told which tasks to perform and when.
Their employees have to be watched carefully to be sure that they work
hard enough to fulfill the organization’s goals. Theory X workplaces
will often have employees punch a clock when arriving and leaving the
workplace: Tardiness is punished. Supervisors, not employees, determine
whether an employee needs to stay late, and even this decision would
require someone higher up in the command chain to approve the extra
hours. Theory X supervisors will ignore employees’ suggestions for
improved efficiency and reprimand employees for speaking out of order.
These supervisors blame efficiency failures on individual employees
rather than the systems or policies in place. Managerial goals are
achieved through a system of punishments and threats rather than
enticements and rewards. Managers are suspicious of employees’
motivations and always suspect selfish motivations for their behavior at
work (e.g., being paid is their sole motivation for working).
In the Theory Y{: data-type=“term”} approach, on the other hand,
managers assume that most people seek inner satisfaction and fulfillment
from their work. Employees function better under leadership that allows
them to participate in, and provide input about, setting their personal
and work goals. In Theory Y workplaces, employees participate in
decisions about prioritizing tasks; they may belong to teams that, once
given a goal, decide themselves how it will be accomplished. In such a
workplace, employees are able to provide input on matters of efficiency
and safety. One example of Theroy Y in action is the policy of Toyota
production lines that allows any employee to stop the entire line if a
defect or other issue appears, so that the defect can be fixed and its
cause remedied (Toyota Motor Manufacturing, 2013). A Theory Y workplace
will also meaningfully consult employees on any changes to the work
process or management system. In addition, the organization will
encourage employees to contribute their own ideas. McGregor (1960)
characterized Theory X as the traditional method of management used in
the United States. He agued that a Theory Y approach was needed to
improve organizational output and the wellbeing of individuals.
[link] summarizes how these two management
approaches differ.
Theory X and Theory Y Management Styles
Theory X
Theory Y
People dislike work and avoid it.
People enjoy work and find it natural.
People avoid responsibility.
People are more satisified when given responsibility.
People want to be told what to do.
People want to take part in setting their own work goals.
Goals are achieved through rules and punishments.
Goals are achieved through enticements and rewards.
Another management style was described by Donald Clifton, who focused
his research on how an organization can best use an individual’s
strengths, an approach he called strengths-based management. He and his
colleagues interviewed 8,000 managers and concluded that it is important
to focus on a person’s strengths, not their weaknesses. A strength is a
particular enduring talent possessed by an individual that allows her to
provide consistent, near-perfect performance in tasks involving that
talent. Clifton argued that our strengths provide the greatest
opportunity for growth (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001). An example of a
strength is public speaking or the ability to plan a successful event.
The strengths-based approach is very popular although its effect on
organization performance is not well-studied. However, Kaiser &
Overfield (2011) found that managers often neglected improving their
weaknesses and overused their strengths, both of which interfered with
performance.
Leadership is an important element of management. Leadership styles have
been of major interest within I-O research, and researchers have
proposed numerous theories of leadership. Bass (1985) popularized and
developed the concepts of transactional leadership versus
transformational leadership styles. In transactional leadership{:
data-type=“term”}, the focus is on supervision and organizational goals,
which are achieved through a system of rewards and punishments (i.e.,
transactions). Transactional leaders maintain the status quo: They are
managers. This is in contrast to the transformational leader. People who
have transformational leadership{: data-type=“term”} possess four
attributes to varying degrees: They are charismatic (highly liked role
models), inspirational (optimistic about goal attainment),
intellectually stimulating (encourage critical thinking and problem
solving), and considerate (Bass, Avolio, & Atwater, 1996).
As women increasingly take on leadership roles in corporations,
questions have arisen as to whether there are differences in leadership
styles between men and women (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & van Engen,
2003). Eagly & Johnson (1990) conducted a meta-analysis to examine
gender and leadership style. They found, to a slight but significant
degree, that women tend to practice an interpersonal style of leadership
(i.e., she focuses on the morale and welfare of the employees) and men
practice a task-oriented style (i.e., he focuses on accomplishing
tasks). However, the differences were less pronounced when one looked
only at organizational studies and excluded laboratory experiments or
surveys that did not involve actual organizational leaders. Larger
sex-related differences were observed when leadership style was
categorized as democratic or autocratic, and these differences were
consistent across all types of studies. The authors suggest that
similarities between the sexes in leadership styles are attributable to
both sexes needing to conform the organization’s culture; additionally,
they propose that sex-related differences reflect inherent differences
in the strengths each sex brings to bear on leadership practice. In
another meta-analysis of leadership style, Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, &
van Engen (2003) found that women tended to exhibit the characteristics
of transformational leaders, while men were more likely to be
transactional leaders. However, the differences are not absolute; for
example, women were found to use methods of reward for performance more
often than men, which is a component of transactional leadership. The
differences they found were relatively small. As Eagly,
Johannesen-Schmidt, & van Engen (2003) point out, research shows that
transformational leadership approaches are more effective than
transactional approaches, although individual leaders typically exhibit
elements of both approaches.
The workplace today is rapidly changing due to a variety of factors,
such as shifts in technology, economics, foreign competition,
globalization, and workplace demographics. Organizations need to respond
quickly to changes in these factors. Many companies are responding to
these changes by structuring their organizations so that work can be
delegated to work teams{: data-type=“term”}, which bring together
diverse skills, experience, and expertise. This is in contrast to
organizational structures that have individuals at their base (Naquin &
Tynan, 2003). In the team-based approach, teams are brought together and
given a specific task or goal to accomplish. Despite their burgeoning
popularity, team structures do not always deliver greater
productivity—the work of teams is an active area of research (Naquin &
Tynan, 2003).
Why do some teams work well while others do not? There are many
contributing factors. For example, teams can mask team members that are
not working (i.e., social loafing). Teams can be inefficient due to poor
communication; they can have poor decision-making skills due to
conformity effects; and, they can have conflict within the group. The
popularity of teams may in part result from the team halo effect: Teams
are given credit for their successes. but individuals within a team are
blamed for team failures (Naquin & Tynan, 2003). One aspect of team
diversity is their gender mix. Researchers have explored whether gender
mix has an effect on team performance. On the one hand, diversity can
introduce communication and interpersonal-relationship problems that
hinder performance, but on the other hand diversity can also increase
the team’s skill set, which may include skills that can actually improve
team member interactions. Hoogendoorn, Oosterbeek, & van Praag (2013)
studied project teams in a university business school in which the
gender mix of the teams was manipulated. They found that gender-balanced
teams (i.e., nearly equal numbers of men and women) performed better, as
measured by sales and profits, than predominantly male teams. The study
did not have enough data to determine the relative performance of female
dominated teams. The study was unsuccessful in identifying which
mechanism (interpersonal relationships, learning, or skills mixes)
accounted for performance improvement.
There are three basic types of teams: problem resolution teams, creative
teams, and tactical teams. Problem resolution teams are created for the
purpose of solving a particular problem or issue; for example, the
diagnostic teams at the Centers for Disease Control. Creative teams are
used to develop innovative possibilities or solutions; for example,
design teams for car manufacturers create new vehicle models. Tactical
teams are used to execute a well-defined plan or objective, such as a
police or FBI SWAT team handling a hostage situation (Larson & LaFasto,
1989). One area of active research involves a fourth kind of team—the
virtual team; these studies examine how groups of geographically
disparate people brought together using digital communications
technology function (Powell, Piccoli, & Ives, 2004). Virtual teams are
more common due to the growing globalization of organizations and the
use of consulting and partnerships facilitated by digital communication.
Each company and organization has an organizational culture.
Organizational culture{: data-type=“term”} encompasses the values,
visions, hierarchies, norms, and interactions among its employees. It is
how an organization is run, how it operates, and how it makes
decisions—the industry in which the organization participates may have
an influence. Different departments within one company can develop their
own subculture within the organization’s culture. Ostroff, Kinicki, and
Tamkins (2003) identify three layers in organizational culture:
observable artifacts, espoused values, and basic assumptions. Observable
artifacts are the symbols, language (jargon, slang, and humor),
narratives (stories and legends), and practices (rituals) that represent
the underlying cultural assumptions. Espoused values are concepts or
beliefs that the management or the entire organization endorses. They
are the rules that allow employees to know which actions they should
take in different situations and which information they should adhere
to. These basic assumptions generally are unobservable and unquestioned.
Researchers have developed survey instruments to measure organizational
culture.
With the workforce being a global marketplace, your company may have a
supplier in Korea and another in Honduras and have employees in the
United States, China, and South Africa. You may have coworkers of
different religious, ethnic, or racial backgrounds than yourself. Your
coworkers may be from different places around the globe. Many workplaces
offer diversity training to help everyone involved bridge and understand
cultural differences. Diversity training{: data-type=“term”}
educates participants about cultural differences with the goal of
improving teamwork. There is always the potential for prejudice between
members of two groups, but the evidence suggests that simply working
together, particularly if the conditions of work are set carefully that
such prejudice can be reduced or eliminated. Pettigrew and Tropp (2006)
conducted a meta-analysis to examine the question of whether contact
between groups reduced prejudice between those groups. They found that
there was a moderate but significant effect. They also found that, as
previously theorized, the effect was enhanced when the two groups met
under conditions in which they have equal standing, common goals,
cooperation between the groups, and especially support on the part of
the institution or authorities for the contact.
Tip
Managing Generational Differences
An important consideration in managing employees is age. Workers’
expectations and attitudes are developed in part by experience in
particular cultural time periods. Generational constructs are
somewhat arbitrary, yet they may be helpful in setting broad
directions to organizational management as one generation leaves the
workforce and another enters it. The baby boomer generation (born
between 1946 and 1964) is in the process of leaving the workforce and
will continue to depart it for a decade or more. Generation X (born
between the early 1960s and the 1980s) are now in the middle of their
careers. Millennials (born from 1979 to the early 1994) began to come
of age at the turn of the century, and are early in their careers.
Today, as these three different generations work side by side in the
workplace, employers and managers need to be able to identify their
unique characteristics. Each generation has distinctive expectations,
habits, attitudes, and motivations (Elmore, 2010). One of the major
differences among these generations is knowledge of the use of
technology in the workplace. Millennials are technologically
sophisticated and believe their use of technology sets them apart
from other generations. They have also been characterized as
self-centered and overly self-confident. Their attitudinal
differences have raised concerns for managers about maintaining their
motivation as employees and their ability to integrate into
organizational culture created by baby boomers (Myers & Sadaghiani,
2010). For example, millennials may expect to hear that they need to
pay their dues in their jobs from baby boomers who believe they paid
their dues in their time. Yet millennials may resist doing so because
they value life outside of work to a greater degree (Myers &
Sadaghiani, 2010). Meister & Willyerd (2010) suggest alternative
approaches to training and mentoring that will engage millennials and
adapt to their need for feedback from supervisors: reverse mentoring,
in which a younger employee educates a senior employee in social
media or other digital resources. The senior employee then has the
opportunity to provide useful guidance within a less demanding role.
Recruiting and retaining millennials and Generation X employees poses
challenges that did not exist in previous generations. The concept of
building a career with the company is not relatable to most
Generation X employees, who do not expect to stay with one employer
for their career. This expectation arises from of a reduced sense of
loyalty because they do not expect their employer to be loyal to them
(Gibson, Greenwood, & Murphy, 2009). Retaining Generation X workers
thus relies on motivating them by making their work meaningful
(Gibson, Greenwood, & Murphy, 2009). Since millennials lack an
inherent loyalty to the company, retaining them also requires effort
in the form of nurturing through frequent rewards, praise, and
feedback.
Millennials are also interested in having many choices, including
options in work scheduling, choice of job duties, and so on. They
also expect more training and education from their employers.
Companies that offer the best benefit package and brand attract
millennials (Myers & Sadaghiani, 2010).
One well-recognized negative aspect of organizational culture is a
culture of harassmentpastehere, including
sexual harassment. Most organizations of any size have developed sexual
harassment policies that define sexual harassment (or harassment in
general) and the procedures the organization has set in place to prevent
and address it when it does occur. Thus, in most jobs you have held, you
were probably made aware of the company’s sexual harassment policy and
procedures, and may have received training related to the policy. The
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (n.d.) provides the
following description of sexual harassment{: data-type=“term”}:
Unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other
verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature constitute sexual
harassment when this conduct explicitly or implicitly affects an
individual’s employment, unreasonably interferes with an individual’s
work performance, or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive
work environment. (par. 2)
One form of sexual harassment is called quid pro quo. Quid pro quo means
you give something to get something, and it refers to a situation in
which organizational rewards are offered in exchange for sexual favors.
Quid pro quo harassment is often between an employee and a person with
greater power in the organization. For example, a supervisor might
request an action, such as a kiss or a touch, in exchange for a
promotion, a positive performance review, or a pay raise. Another form
of sexual harassment is the threat of withholding a reward if a sexual
request is refused. Hostile environment sexual harassment is another
type of workplace harassment. In this situation, an employee experiences
conditions in the workplace that are considered hostile or intimidating.
For example, a work environment that allows offensive language or jokes
or displays sexually explicit images. Isolated occurrences of these
events do not constitute harassment, but a pattern of repeated
occurrences does. In addition to violating organizational policies
against sexual harassment, these forms of harassment are illegal.
Harassment does not have to be sexual; it may be related to any of the
protected classes in the statutes regulated by the EEOC: race, national
origin, religion, or age.
In the summer of August 1986, a part-time postal worker with a troubled
work history walked into the Edmond, Oklahoma, post office and shot and
killed 15 people, including himself. From his action, the term “going
postal” was coined, describing a troubled employee who engages in
extreme violence.
Workplace violence is one aspect of workplace safety that I-O
psychologists study. Workplace violence{: data-type=“term”} is any
act or threat of physical violence, harassment, intimidation, or other
threatening, disruptive behavior that occurs at the workplace. It ranges
from threats and verbal abuse to physical assaults and even homicide
(Occupational Safety & Health Administration, 2014).
There are different targets of workplace violence: a person could commit
violence against coworkers, supervisors, or property. Warning signs
often precede such actions: intimidating behavior, threats, sabotaging
equipment, or radical changes in a coworker’s behavior. Often there is
intimidation and then escalation that leads to even further escalation.
It is important for employees to involve their immediate supervisor if
they ever feel intimidated or unsafe.
Murder is the second leading cause of death in the workplace. It is also
the primary cause of death for women in the workplace. Every year there
are nearly two million workers who are physically assaulted or
threatened with assault. Many are murdered in domestic violence
situations by boyfriends or husbands who chose the woman’s workplace to
commit their crimes.
There are many triggers for workplace violence. A significant trigger is
the feeling of being treated unfairly, unjustly, or disrespectfully. In
a research experiment, Greenberg (1993) examined the reactions of
students who were given pay for a task. In one group, the students were
given extensive explanations for the pay rate. In the second group, the
students were given a curt uninformative explanation. The students were
made to believe the supervisor would not know how much money the student
withdrew for payment. The rate of stealing (taking more pay than they
were told they deserved) was higher in the group who had been given the
limited explanation. This is a demonstration of the importance of
procedural justice in organizations. Procedural justice{:
data-type=“term”} refers to the fairness of the processes by which
outcomes are determined in conflicts with or among employees.
In another study by Greenberg & Barling (1999), they found a history of
aggression and amount of alcohol consumed to be accurate predictors of
workplace violence against a coworker. Aggression against a supervisor
was predicted if a worker felt unfairly treated or untrusted. Job
security and alcohol consumption predicted aggression against a
subordinate. To understand and predict workplace violence, Greenberg &
Barling (1999) emphasize the importance of considering the employee
target of aggression or violence and characteristics of both the
workplace characteristics and the aggressive or violent person.
Organizational psychology is concerned with the effects of interactions
among people in the workplace on the employees themselves and on
organizational productivity. Job satisfaction and its determinants and
outcomes are a major focus of organizational psychology research and
practice. Organizational psychologists have also studied the effects of
management styles and leadership styles on productivity. In addition to
the employees and management, organizational psychology also looks at
the organizational culture and how that might affect productivity. One
aspect of organization culture is the prevention and addressing of
sexual and other forms of harassment in the workplace. Sexual harassment
includes language, behavior, or displays that create a hostile
environment; it also includes sexual favors requested in exchange for
workplace rewards (i.e., quid pro quo). Industrial-organizational
psychology has conducted extensive research on the triggers and causes
of workplace violence and safety. This enables the organization to
establish procedures that can identify these triggers before they become
a problem.
Question
A ________ is an example of a tactical team.
surgical team
car design team
budget committee
sports team {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Which practice is an example of Theory X management?
telecommuting
flextime
keystroke monitoring
team meetings {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Which is one effect of the team halo effect?
teams appear to work better than they do
teams never fail
teams lead to greater job satisfaction
teams boost productivity {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Which of the following is the most strongly predictive factor of
overall job satisfaction?
financial rewards
personality
autonomy
work content {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
What is the name for what occurs when a supervisor offers a
work-related reward in exchange for a sexual favor?
If you designed an assessment of job satisfaction, what elements
would it include?
Answers may vary, but they should include that the assessment
would include more than one question to try to understand the
reasons for the level of job satisfaction. It may also include
questions that assess the importance of emotional and cognitive
job satisfaction factors.
Downsizing has commonly shown to result in a period of lowered
productivity for the organizations experiencing it. What might be
some of the reasons for this observation?
Answers may vary, but they should include factors like lower job
satisfaction, higher job stress, disruption of organizational
culture, and other factors related to the concepts covered.
How would you handle the situation if you were being sexually
harassed? What would you consider sexual harassment?
Answers may vary, but they should include telling the person that
you are not comfortable with these actions and then reporting it
to human resources. The definition of sexual harassment may
discuss the sexual nature of the event, feelings of discomfort,
fear, or anxiety, and recurrences of events.
sexually-based behavior that is knowingly unwanted and has an
adverse effect of a person’s employment status, interferes with a
person’s job performance, or creates a hostile or intimidating
work environment ^
assumes workers are people who seek to work hard and productively;
managers and workers can find creative solutions to problems;
workers do not need to be controlled and punished ^
characteristic of leaders who focus on supervision and
organizational goals achieved through a system of rewards and
punishments; maintenance of the organizational status quo ^
characteristic of leaders who are charismatic role models,
inspirational, intellectually stimulating, and individually
considerate and who seek to change the organization ^
group of people within an organization or company given a specific
task to achieve together
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
field of human factors psychology * Explain the role of human
factors psychology in safety, productivity, and job satisfaction
Human factors psychology (or ergonomics, a term that is favored in
Europe) is the third subject area within industrial and organizational
psychology. This field is concerned with the integration of the
human-machine interface in the workplace, through design, and
specifically with researching and designing machines that fit human
requirements. The integration may be physical or cognitive, or a
combination of both. Anyone who needs to be convinced that the field is
necessary need only try to operate an unfamiliar television remote
control or use a new piece of software for the first time. Whereas the
two other areas of I-O psychology focus on the interface between the
worker and team, group, or organization, human factors psychology
focuses on the individual worker’s interaction with a machine, work
station, information displays, and the local environment, such as
lighting. In the United States, human factors psychology has origins in
both psychology and engineering; this is reflected in the early
contributions of Lillian Gilbrethpastehere
(psychologist and engineer) and her husband Frank Gilbreth (engineer).
Human factor professionals are involved in design from the beginning of
a project, as is more common in software design projects, or toward the
end in testing and evaluation, as is more common in traditional
industries (Howell, 2003). Another important role of human factor
professionals is in the development of regulations and principles of
best design. These regulations and principles are often related to work
safety. For example, the Three Mile Island nuclear accident lead to
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) requirements for additional
instrumentation in nuclear facilities to provide operators with more
critical information and increased operator training (United States
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2013). The American National Standards
Institute (ANSI, 2000), an independent developer of industrial
standards, develops many standards related to ergonomic design, such as
the design of control-center workstations that are used for
transportation control or industrial process control.
Many of the concerns of human factors psychology are related to
workplace safety. These concerns can be studied to help prevent
work-related injuries of individual workers or those around them. Safety
protocols may also be related to activities, such as commercial driving
or flying, medical procedures, and law enforcement, that have the
potential to impact the public.
One of the methods used to reduce accidents in the workplace is a
checklist{: data-type=“term”}. The airline industry is one
industry that uses checklists. Pilots are required to go through a
detailed checklist of the different parts of the aircraft before takeoff
to ensure that all essential equipment is working correctly. Astronauts
also go through checklists before takeoff. The surgical safety checklist
shown in [link] was developed by the
World Health Organization (WHO) and serves as the basis for many
checklists at medical facilities.
Safety concerns also lead to limits to how long an operator, such as a
pilot or truck driver, is allowed to operate the equipment. Recently the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) introduced limits for how long a
pilot is allowed to fly without an overnight break.
Howell (2003) outlines some important areas of research and practice in
the field of human factors. These are summarized in
[link].
Areas of Study in Human Factors Psychology
Area
Description
I-O Questions
Attention
Includes vigilance and monitoring, recognizing signals in noise, mental
resources, and divided attention
How is attention maintained? What about tasks maintains attention? How
to design systems to support attention?
Cognitive engineering
Includes human software interactions in complex automated systems,
especially the decision-making processes of workers as they are
supported by the software system
How do workers use and obtain information provided by software?
Task analysis
Breaking down the elements of a task
How can a task be performed more efficiently? How can a task be
performed more safely?
Cognitive task analysis
Breaking down the elements of a cognitive task
How are decisions made?
As an example of research in human factors psychology Bruno & Abrahão
(2012) examined the impact of the volume of operator decisions on the
accuracy of decisions made within an information security center at a
banking institution in Brazil. The study examined a total of about
45,000 decisions made by 35 operators and 4 managers over a period of 60
days. Their study found that as the number of decisions made per day by
the operators climbed, that is, as their cognitive effort increased, the
operators made more mistakes in falsely identifying incidents as real
security breaches (when, in reality, they were not). Interestingly, the
opposite mistake of identifying real intrusions as false alarms did not
increase with increased cognitive demand. This appears to be good news
for the bank, since false alarms are not as costly as incorrectly
rejecting a genuine threat. These kinds of studies combine research on
attention, perception, teamwork, and human–computer interactions in a
field of considerable societal and business significance. This is
exactly the context of the events that led to the massive data breach
for Target in the fall of 2013. Indications are that security personnel
received signals of a security breach but did not interpret them
correctly, thus allowing the breach to continue for two weeks until an
outside agency, the FBI, informed the company (Riley, Elgin, Lawrence, &
Matlack, 2014).
Human factors psychology, or ergonomics, studies the interface between
workers and their machines and physical environments. Human factors
psychologists specifically seek to design machines to better support the
workers using them. Psychologists may be involved in design of work
tools such as software, displays, or machines from the beginning of the
design process or during the testing an already developed product. Human
factor psychologists are also involved in the development of best design
recommendations and regulations. One important aspect of human factors
psychology is enhancing worker safety. Human factors research involves
efforts to understand and improve interactions between technology
systems and their human operators. Human–software interactions are a
large sector of this research.
Question
What aspect of an office workstation would a human factors
psychologist be concerned about?
height of the chair
closeness to the supervisor
frequency of coworker visits
presence of an offensive sign {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
A human factors psychologist who studied how a worker interacted
with a search engine would be researching in the area of
________.
What role could a flight simulator play in the design of a new
aircraft?
Answers will vary, but they should include that the simulator
would be used to determine how pilots interact with the controls
and displays within the cockpit, including under conditions of
simulated emergencies.
Describe an example of a technology or team and technology
interaction that you have had in the context of school or work
that could have benefited from better design. What were the
effects of the poor design? Make one suggestion for its
improvement.
The surgical site is marked or site marking is not applicable.
The pulse oximeter is on the patient and functioning.” The second list item reads, “All members of the team are aware of whether the patient has a known allergy.” The third list item reads, “The patient’s airway and risk of aspiration have been evaluated and appropriate equipment and assistance are available.” The fourth list item reads, “If there is a risk of blood loss of at least 500 ml (or 7 ml/kg of body weight, in children), appropriate access and fluids are available.” The section titled “Time out” begins, “Before skin incision, the entire team (nurses, surgeons, anesthesia professionals, and any others participating in the care of the patient) orally.” The bulleted list below contains “Confirms that all team members have been introduced by name and role. Confirms the patient’s identity, surgical site, and procedure. Reviews the anticipated critical events.” This first bullet has three sub-bullets that read, “Surgeon reviews critical and unexpected steps, operative duration, and anticipated blood loss; Anesthesia staff review concerns specific to the patient; Nursing staff review confirmation of sterility, equipment availability, and other concerns.” The following two bullets read: Confirms that prophylactic antibiotics have been administered = 60 min before incision is made or that antibiotics are not indicated” and “Confirms that all essential imaging results for the correct patient are displayed in the operating room.” The section titled “Sign out” reads “Before the patient leaves the operating room.” Following this are two bullet points. The first reads “Nurse reviews items aloud with the team.” This bullet has four sub-bullets that read “Name of the procedure as recorded; That the needle, sponge, and instrument counts are complete (or not applicable); That the specimen (if any) is correctly labeled, including with the patient’s name; Whether there are issues with equipment to be addressed.” The final bullet reads “The surgeon, nurse, and anesthesia professional review aloud the key concerns for the recovery and care of the patient.”| image:: ../resources/CNX_Psych_13_04_Checklist.jpg
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Few would deny that today’s college students are under a lot of
pressure. In addition to many usual stresses and strains incidental to
the college experience (e.g., exams, term papers, and the dreaded
freshman 15), students today are faced with increased college tuitions,
burdensome debt, and difficulty finding employment after graduation. A
significant population of non-traditional college students may face
additional stressors, such as raising children or holding down a
full-time job while working toward a degree.
Of course, life is filled with many additional challenges beyond those
incurred in college or the workplace. We might have concerns with
financial security, difficulties with friends or neighbors, family
responsibilities, and we may not have enough time to do the things we
want to do. Even minor hassles—losing things, traffic jams, and loss of
internet service—all involve pressure and demands that can make life
seem like a struggle and that can compromise our sense of well-being.
That is, all can be stressful in some way.
Scientific interest in stress, including how we adapt and cope, has been
longstanding in psychology; indeed, after nearly a century of research
on the topic, much has been learned and many insights have been
developed. This chapter examines stress and highlights our current
understanding of the phenomenon, including its psychological and
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Differentiate
between stimulus-based and response-based definitions of stress *
Define stress as a process * Differentiate between good stress and
bad stress * Describe the early contributions of Walter Cannon and
Hans Selye to the stress research field * Understand the
physiological basis of stress and describe the general adaptation
syndrome
The term stresspastehere as it relates to
the human condition first emerged in scientific literature in the 1930s,
but it did not enter the popular vernacular until the 1970s (Lyon,
2012). Today, we often use the term loosely in describing a variety of
unpleasant feeling states; for example, we often say we are stressed out
when we feel frustrated, angry, conflicted, overwhelmed, or fatigued.
Despite the widespread use of the term, stress is a fairly vague concept
that is difficult to define with precision.
Researchers have had a difficult time agreeing on an acceptable
definition of stress. Some have conceptualized stress as a demanding or
threatening event or situation (e.g., a high-stress job, overcrowding,
and long commutes to work). Such conceptualizations are known as
stimulus-based definitions because they characterize stress as a
stimulus that causes certain reactions. Stimulus-based definitions of
stress are problematic, however, because they fail to recognize that
people differ in how they view and react to challenging life events and
situations. For example, a conscientious student who has studied
diligently all semester would likely experience less stress during final
exams week than would a less responsible, unprepared student.
Others have conceptualized stress in ways that emphasize the
physiological responses that occur when faced with demanding or
threatening situations (e.g., increased arousal). These
conceptualizations are referred to as response-based definitions because
they describe stress as a response to environmental conditions. For
example, the endocrinologist Hans Selye{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis}, a famous stress researcher, once defined stress as the
“response of the body to any demand, whether it is caused by, or results
in, pleasant or unpleasant conditions” (Selye, 1976, p. 74). Selye’s
definition of stress is response-based in that it conceptualizes stress
chiefly in terms of the body’s physiological reaction to any demand that
is placed on it. Neither stimulus-based nor response-based definitions
provide a complete definition of stress. Many of the physiological
reactions that occur when faced with demanding situations (e.g.,
accelerated heart rate) can also occur in response to things that most
people would not consider to be genuinely stressful, such as receiving
unanticipated good news: an unexpected promotion or raise.
A useful way to conceptualize stress{: data-type=“term”} is to
view it as a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to
events that he appraises as overwhelming or threatening to his
well-being (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). A critical element of this
definition is that it emphasizes the importance of how we appraise—that
is, judge—demanding or threatening events (often referred to as
stressors{: data-type=“term”}); these appraisals, in turn,
influence our reactions to such events. Two kinds of appraisals of a
stressor are especially important in this regard: primary and secondary
appraisals. A primary appraisal{: data-type=“term”} involves
judgment about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that
a stressor might entail. A stressor would likely be appraised as a
threat if one anticipates that it could lead to some kind of harm, loss,
or other negative consequence; conversely, a stressor would likely be
appraised as a challenge if one believes that it carries the potential
for gain or personal growth. For example, an employee who is promoted to
a leadership position would likely perceive the promotion as a much
greater threat if she believed the promotion would lead to excessive
work demands than if she viewed it as an opportunity to gain new skills
and grow professionally. Similarly, a college student on the cusp of
graduation may face the change as a threat or a challenge
([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_Graduation}
The perception of a threat triggers a secondary appraisal{:
data-type=“term”}: judgment of the options available to cope with a
stressor, as well as perceptions of how effective such options will be
(Lyon, 2012) ([link]). As you may
recall from what you learned about self-efficacy, an individual’s belief
in his ability to complete a task is important (Bandura, 1994). A threat
tends to be viewed as less catastrophic if one believes something can be
done about it (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Imagine that two middle-aged
women, Robin and Maria, perform breast self-examinations one morning and
each woman notices a lump on the lower region of her left breast.
Although both women view the breast lump as a potential threat (primary
appraisal), their secondary appraisals differ considerably. In
considering the breast lump, some of the thoughts racing through Robin’s
mind are, “Oh my God, I could have breast cancer! What if the cancer has
spread to the rest of my body and I cannot recover? What if I have to go
through chemotherapy? I’ve heard that experience is awful! What if I
have to quit my job? My husband and I won’t have enough money to pay the
mortgage. Oh, this is just horrible…I can’t deal with it!” On the other
hand, Maria thinks, “Hmm, this may not be good. Although most times
these things turn out to be benign, I need to have it checked out. If it
turns out to be breast cancer, there are doctors who can take care of it
because the medical technology today is quite advanced. I’ll have a lot
of different options, and I’ll be just fine.” Clearly, Robin and Maria
have different outlooks on what might turn out to be a very serious
situation: Robin seems to think that little could be done about it,
whereas Maria believes that, worst case scenario, a number of options
that are likely to be effective would be available. As such, Robin would
clearly experience greater stress than would Maria.
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_Appraisals}
To be sure, some stressors are inherently more stressful than others in
that they are more threatening and leave less potential for variation in
cognitive appraisals (e.g., objective threats to one’s health or
safety). Nevertheless, appraisal will still play a role in augmenting or
diminishing our reactions to such events (Everly & Lating, 2002).
If a person appraises an event as harmful and believes that the demands
imposed by the event exceed the available resources to manage or adapt
to it, the person will subjectively experience a state of stress. In
contrast, if one does not appraise the same event as harmful or
threatening, she is unlikely to experience stress. According to this
definition, environmental events trigger stress reactions by the way
they are interpreted and the meanings they are assigned. In short,
stress is largely in the eye of the beholder: it’s not so much what
happens to you as it is how you respond (Selye, 1976).
Although stress carries a negative connotation, at times it may be of
some benefit. Stress can motivate us to do things in our best interests,
such as study for exams, visit the doctor regularly, exercise, and
perform to the best of our ability at work. Indeed, Selye (1974) pointed
out that not all stress is harmful. He argued that stress can sometimes
be a positive, motivating force that can improve the quality of our
lives. This kind of stress, which Selye called eustress{:
data-type=“term”} (from the Greek eu = “good”), is a good kind of
stress associated with positive feelings, optimal health, and
performance. A moderate amount of stress can be beneficial in
challenging situations. For example, athletes may be motivated and
energized by pregame stress, and students may experience similar
beneficial stress before a major exam. Indeed, research shows that
moderate stress can enhance both immediate and delayed recall of
educational material. Male participants in one study who memorized a
scientific text passage showed improved memory of the passage
immediately after exposure to a mild stressor as well as one day
following exposure to the stressor (Hupbach & Fieman, 2012).
Increasing one’s level of stress will cause performance to change in a
predictable way. As shown in [link],
as stress increases, so do performance and general well-being
(eustress); when stress levels reach an optimal level (the highest point
of the curve), performance reaches its peak. A person at this stress
level is colloquially at the top of his game, meaning he feels fully
energized, focused, and can work with minimal effort and maximum
efficiency. But when stress exceeds this optimal level, it is no longer
a positive force—it becomes excessive and debilitating, or what Selye
termed distress{: data-type=“term”} (from the Latin dis =
“bad”). People who reach this level of stress feel burned out; they are
fatigued, exhausted, and their performance begins to decline. If the
stress remains excessive, health may begin to erode as well (Everly &
Lating, 2002).
Stress is everywhere and, as shown in
[link], it has been on the rise over
the last several years. Each of us is acquainted with stress—some are
more familiar than others. In many ways, stress feels like a load you
just can’t carry—a feeling you experience when, for example, you have to
drive somewhere in a crippling blizzard, when you wake up late the
morning of an important job interview, when you run out of money before
the next pay period, and before taking an important exam for which you
realize you are not fully prepared.
{: #CNX_Psych_14_01_StressRise}
Stress is an experience that evokes a variety of responses, including
those that are physiological (e.g., accelerated heart rate, headaches,
or gastrointestinal problems), cognitive (e.g., difficulty concentrating
or making decisions), and behavioral (e.g., drinking alcohol, smoking,
or taking actions directed at eliminating the cause of the stress).
Although stress can be positive at times, it can have deleterious health
implications, contributing to the onset and progression of a variety of
physical illnesses and diseases (Cohen & Herbert, 1996).
The scientific study of how stress and other psychological factors
impact health falls within the realm of health psychology{:
data-type=“term”}, a subfield of psychology devoted to understanding the
importance of psychological influences on health, illness, and how
people respond when they become ill (Taylor, 1999). Health psychology
emerged as a discipline in the 1970s, a time during which there was
increasing awareness of the role behavioral and lifestyle factors play
in the development of illnesses and diseases (Straub, 2007). In addition
to studying the connection between stress and illness, health
psychologists investigate issues such as why people make certain
lifestyle choices (e.g., smoking or eating unhealthy food despite
knowing the potential adverse health implications of such behaviors).
Health psychologists also design and investigate the effectiveness of
interventions aimed at changing unhealthy behaviors. Perhaps one of the
more fundamental tasks of health psychologists is to identify which
groups of people are especially at risk for negative health outcomes,
based on psychological or behavioral factors. For example, measuring
differences in stress levels among demographic groups and how these
levels change over time can help identify populations who may have an
increased risk for illness or disease.
[link] depicts the results of three
national surveys in which several thousand individuals from different
demographic groups completed a brief stress questionnaire; the surveys
were administered in 1983, 2006, and 2009 (Cohen & Janicki-Deverts,
2012). All three surveys demonstrated higher stress in women than in
men. Unemployed individuals reported high levels of stress in all three
surveys, as did those with less education and income; retired persons
reported the lowest stress levels. However, from 2006 to 2009 the
greatest increase in stress levels occurred among men, Whites, people
aged 45–64, college graduates, and those with full-time employment. One
interpretation of these findings is that concerns surrounding the
2008–2009 economic downturn (e.g., threat of or actual job loss and
substantial loss of retirement savings) may have been especially
stressful to White, college-educated, employed men with limited time
remaining in their working careers.
As previously stated, scientific interest in stress goes back nearly a
century. One of the early pioneers in the study of stress was Walter
Cannonpastehere, an eminent American
physiologist at Harvard Medical School
([link]). In the early part of the 20th
century, Cannon was the first to identify the body’s physiological
reactions to stress.
Imagine that you are hiking in the beautiful mountains of Colorado on a
warm and sunny spring day. At one point during your hike, a large,
frightening-looking black bear appears from behind a stand of trees and
sits about 50 yards from you. The bear notices you, sits up, and begins
to lumber in your direction. In addition to thinking, “This is
definitely not good,” a constellation of physiological reactions begins
to take place inside you. Prompted by a deluge of epinephrine
(adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) from your adrenal
glands, your pupils begin to dilate. Your heart starts to pound and
speeds up, you begin to breathe heavily and perspire, you get
butterflies in your stomach, and your muscles become tense, preparing
you to take some kind of direct action. Cannon proposed that this
reaction, which he called the fight-or-flight response{:
data-type=“term”}, occurs when a person experiences very strong
emotions—especially those associated with a perceived threat (Cannon,
1932). During the fight-or-flight response, the body is rapidly aroused
by activation of both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine
system ([link]). This arousal helps
prepare the person to either fight or flee from a perceived threat.
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_FightFlight}
According to Cannon, the fight-or-flight response is a built-in
mechanism that assists in maintaining homeostasis—an internal
environment in which physiological variables such as blood pressure,
respiration, digestion, and temperature are stabilized at levels optimal
for survival. Thus, Cannon viewed the fight-or-flight response as
adaptive because it enables us to adjust internally and externally to
changes in our surroundings, which is helpful in species survival.
Another important early contributor to the stress field was Hans
Selyepastehere, mentioned earlier. He
would eventually become one of the world’s foremost experts in the study
of stress ([link]). As a young
assistant in the biochemistry department at McGill University in the
1930s, Selye was engaged in research involving sex hormones in rats.
Although he was unable to find an answer for what he was initially
researching, he incidentally discovered that when exposed to prolonged
negative stimulation (stressors)—such as extreme cold, surgical injury,
excessive muscular exercise, and shock—the rats showed signs of adrenal
enlargement, thymus and lymph node shrinkage, and stomach ulceration.
Selye realized that these responses were triggered by a coordinated
series of physiological reactions that unfold over time during continued
exposure to a stressor. These physiological reactions were nonspecific,
which means that regardless of the type of stressor, the same pattern of
reactions would occur. What Selye discovered was the general
adaptation syndrome{: data-type=“term”}, the body’s nonspecific
physiological response to stress.
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_Hans_Selye}
The general adaptation syndrome, shown in
[link], consists of three stages: (1)
alarm reaction, (2) stage of resistance, and (3) stage of exhaustion
(Selye, 1936; 1976). Alarm reaction{: data-type=“term”} describes
the body’s immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or
emergency, and it is roughly analogous to the fight-or-flight response
described by Cannon. During an alarm reaction, you are alerted to a
stressor, and your body alarms you with a cascade of physiological
reactions that provide you with the energy to manage the situation. A
person who wakes up in the middle of the night to discover her house is
on fire, for example, is experiencing an alarm reaction.
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_Adaptation}
If exposure to a stressor is prolonged, the organism will enter the
stage of resistance{: data-type=“term”}. During this stage, the
initial shock of alarm reaction has worn off and the body has adapted to
the stressor. Nevertheless, the body also remains on alert and is
prepared to respond as it did during the alarm reaction, although with
less intensity. For example, suppose a child who went missing is still
missing 72 hours later. Although the parents would obviously remain
extremely disturbed, the magnitude of physiological reactions would
likely have diminished over the 72 intervening hours due to some
adaptation to this event.
If exposure to a stressor continues over a longer period of time, the
stage of exhaustion{: data-type=“term”} ensues. At this stage, the
person is no longer able to adapt to the stressor: the body’s ability to
resist becomes depleted as physical wear takes its toll on the body’s
tissues and organs. As a result, illness, disease, and other permanent
damage to the body—even death—may occur. If a missing child still
remained missing after three months, the long-term stress associated
with this situation may cause a parent to literally faint with
exhaustion at some point or even to develop a serious and irreversible
illness.
In short, Selye’s general adaptation syndrome suggests that stressors
tax the body via a three-phase process—an initial jolt, subsequent
readjustment, and a later depletion of all physical resources—that
ultimately lays the groundwork for serious health problems and even
death. It should be pointed out, however, that this model is a
response-based conceptualization of stress, focusing exclusively on the
body’s physical responses while largely ignoring psychological factors
such as appraisal and interpretation of threats. Nevertheless, Selye’s
model has had an enormous impact on the field of stress because it
offers a general explanation for how stress can lead to physical damage
and, thus, disease. As we shall discuss later, prolonged or repeated
stress has been implicated in development of a number of disorders such
as hypertension and coronary artery disease.
What goes on inside our bodies when we experience stress? The
physiological mechanisms of stress are extremely complex, but they
generally involve the work of two systems—the sympathetic nervous
systempastehere and the
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis{: data-type=“term”}.
When a person first perceives something as stressful (Selye’s alarm
reaction), the sympathetic nervous system triggers arousal via the
release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands. Release of these hormones
activates the fight-or-flight responses to stress, such as accelerated
heart rate and respiration. At the same time, the HPA axis, which is
primarily endocrine in nature, becomes especially active, although it
works much more slowly than the sympathetic nervous system. In response
to stress, the hypothalamus (one of the limbic structures in the brain)
releases corticotrophin-releasing factor, a hormone that causes the
pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
([link]). The ACTH then activates the
adrenal glands to secrete a number of hormones into the bloodstream; an
important one is cortisol, which can affect virtually every organ within
the body. Cortisol{: data-type=“term”} is commonly known as a
stress hormone and helps provide that boost of energy when we first
encounter a stressor, preparing us to run away or fight. However,
sustained elevated levels of cortisol weaken the immune system.
{: #CNX_Psych_14_01_HPAAxis}
In short bursts, this process can have some favorable effects, such as
providing extra energy, improving immune system{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} functioning temporarily, and decreasing pain sensitivity.
However, extended release of cortisol—as would happen with prolonged or
chronic stress—often comes at a high price. High levels of cortisol have
been shown to produce a number of harmful effects. For example,
increases in cortisol can significantly weaken our immune system (Glaser
& Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005), and high levels are frequently observed among
depressed individuals (Geoffroy, Hertzman, Li, & Power, 2013). In
summary, a stressful event causes a variety of physiological reactions
that activate the adrenal glands, which in turn release epinephrine,
norepinephrine, and cortisol. These hormones affect a number of bodily
processes in ways that prepare the stressed person to take direct
action, but also in ways that may heighten the potential for illness.
When stress is extreme or chronic, it can have profoundly negative
consequences. For example, stress often contributes to the development
of certain psychological disorders, including post-traumatic stress
disorder, major depressive disorder, and other serious psychiatric
conditions. Additionally, we noted earlier that stress is linked to the
development and progression of a variety of physical illnesses and
diseases. For example, researchers in one study found that people
injured during the September 11, 2001, World Trade Center disaster or
who developed post-traumatic stress symptoms afterward later suffered
significantly elevated rates of heart disease (Jordan, Miller-Archie,
Cone, Morabia, & Stellman, 2011). Another investigation yielded that
self-reported stress symptoms among aging and retired Finnish food
industry workers were associated with morbidity 11 years later. This
study also predicted the onset of musculoskeletal, nervous system, and
endocrine and metabolic disorders (Salonen, Arola, Nygård, & Huhtala,
2008). Another study reported that male South Korean manufacturing
employees who reported high levels of work-related stress were more
likely to catch the common cold over the next several months than were
those employees who reported lower work-related stress levels (Park et
al., 2011). Later, you will explore the mechanisms through which stress
can produce physical illness and disease.
Stress is a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to
events appraised as overwhelming or threatening to one’s well-being. The
scientific study of how stress and emotional factors impact health and
well-being is called health psychology, a field devoted to studying the
general impact of psychological factors on health. The body’s primary
physiological response during stress, the fight-or-flight response, was
first identified in the early 20th century by Walter Cannon. The
fight-or-flight response involves the coordinated activity of both the
sympathetic nervous system and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)
axis. Hans Selye, a noted endocrinologist, referred to these
physiological reactions to stress as part of general adaptation
syndrome, which occurs in three stages: alarm reaction (fight-or-flight
reactions begin), resistance (the body begins to adapt to continuing
stress), and exhaustion (adaptive energy is depleted, and stress begins
to take a physical toll).
Question
Negative effects of stress are most likely to be experienced when
an event is perceived as ________.
negative, but it is likely to affect one’s friends rather than
oneself
challenging
confusing
threatening, and no clear options for dealing with it are
apparent {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Between 2006 and 2009, the greatest increases in stress levels
were found to occur among ________.
Blacks
those aged 45–64
the unemployed
those without college degrees {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
At which stage of Selye’s general adaptation syndrome is a person
especially vulnerable to illness?
exhaustion
alarm reaction
fight-or-flight
resistance {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
During an encounter judged as stressful, cortisol is released by
the ________.
Provide an example (other than the one described earlier) of a
situation or event that could be appraised as either threatening
or challenging.
Answers will vary. One example is divorce. People may perceive a
divorce as a threat if they believe it will result in loneliness,
change of lifestyle (due to loss of additional income), or
humiliation in the eyes of their family. However, divorce may be
perceived as a challenge if they view it as an opportunity to find
somebody more compatible, and if they consider the process of
finding a new partner a pleasant one, perhaps involving mystery
and excitement.
Provide an example of a stressful situation that may cause a
person to become seriously ill. How would Selye’s general
adaptation syndrome explain this occurrence?
Answers will vary. One example is when somebody’s spouse dies or
is unexpectedly diagnosed with a fatal disease. In both cases, the
stress experienced by the surviving spouse would be intense,
continuous, and—according the general adaptation syndrome—would
eventually increase vulnerability to illness or disease
(exhaustion stage).
Think of a time in which you and others you know (family members,
friends, and classmates) experienced an event that some viewed as
threatening and others viewed as challenging. What were some of
the differences in the reactions of those who experienced the
event as threatening compared to those who viewed the event as
challenging? Why do you think there were differences in how these
individuals judged the same event?
first stage of the general adaptation syndrome; characterized as
the body’s immediate physiological reaction to a threatening
situation or some other emergency; analogous to the
fight-or-flight response ^
stress hormone released by the adrenal glands when encountering a
stressor; helps to provide a boost of energy, thereby preparing
the individual to take action ^
bad form of stress; usually high in intensity; often leads to
exhaustion, fatigue, feeling burned out; associated with erosions
in performance and health ^
set of physiological reactions (increases in blood pressure, heart
rate, respiration rate, and sweat) that occur when an individual
encounters a perceived threat; these reactions are produced by
activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine
system ^
Hans Selye’s three-stage model of the body’s physiological
reactions to stress and the process of stress adaptation: alarm
reaction, stage of resistance, and stage of exhaustion ^
set of structures found in both the limbic system (hypothalamus)
and the endocrine system (pituitary gland and adrenal glands) that
regulate many of the body’s physiological reactions to stress
through the release of hormones ^
environmental events that may be judged as threatening or
demanding; stimuli that initiate the stress process
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe
different types of possible stressors * Explain the importance of
life changes as potential stressors * Describe the Social
Readjustment Rating Scale * Understand the concepts of job strain
and job burnout
For an individual to experience stress{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis}, he must first encounter a potential stressor{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}. In general, stressors can be placed into
one of two broad categories: chronic and acute. Chronic stressors
include events that persist over an extended period of time, such as
caring for a parent with dementia, long-term unemployment, or
imprisonment. Acute stressors involve brief focal events that sometimes
continue to be experienced as overwhelming well after the event has
ended, such as falling on an icy sidewalk and breaking your leg (Cohen,
Janicki-Deverts, & Miller, 2007). Whether chronic or acute, potential
stressors come in many shapes and sizes. They can include major
traumatic events, significant life changes, daily hassles, as well as
other situations in which a person is regularly exposed to threat,
challenge, or danger.
Some stressors involve traumatic events or situations in which a person
is exposed to actual or threatened death or serious injury. Stressors in
this category include exposure to military combat, threatened or actual
physical assaults (e.g., physical attacks, sexual assault, robbery,
childhood abuse), terrorist attacks, natural disasters (e.g.,
earthquakes, floods, hurricanes), and automobile accidents. Men,
non-Whites, and individuals in lower socioeconomic status (SES) groups
report experiencing a greater number of traumatic events than do women,
Whites, and individuals in higher SES groups (Hatch & Dohrenwend, 2007).
Some individuals who are exposed to stressors of extreme magnitude
develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a chronic stress reaction
characterized by experiences and behaviors that may include intrusive
and painful memories of the stressor event, jumpiness, persistent
negative emotional states, detachment from others, angry outbursts, and
avoidance of reminders of the event (American Psychiatric Association
[APA], 2013).
Most stressors that we encounter are not nearly as intense as the ones
described above. Many potential stressors we face involve events or
situations that require us to make changes in our ongoing lives and
require time as we adjust to those changes. Examples include death of a
close family member, marriage, divorce, and moving
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_14_02_Moving}
In the 1960s, psychiatrists Thomas Holmes{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} and Richard Rahepastehere
wanted to examine the link between life stressors and physical illness,
based on the hypothesis that life events requiring significant changes
in a person’s normal life routines are stressful, whether these events
are desirable or undesirable. They developed the Social Readjustment
Rating Scale (SRRS){: data-type=“term”}, consisting of 43 life
events that require varying degrees of personal readjustment (Holmes &
Rahe, 1967). Many life events that most people would consider pleasant
(e.g., holidays, retirement, marriage) are among those listed on the
SRRS; these are examples of eustress. Holmes and Rahe also proposed that
life events can add up over time, and that experiencing a cluster of
stressful events increases one’s risk of developing physical illnesses.
In developing their scale, Holmes and Rahe asked 394 participants to
provide a numerical estimate for each of the 43 items; each estimate
corresponded to how much readjustment participants felt each event would
require. These estimates resulted in mean value scores for each
event—often called life change units (LCUs) (Rahe, McKeen, & Arthur,
1967). The numerical scores ranged from 11 to 100, representing the
perceived magnitude of life change each event entails. Death of a spouse
ranked highest on the scale with 100 LCUs, and divorce ranked second
highest with 73 LCUs. In addition, personal injury or illness, marriage,
and job termination also ranked highly on the scale with 53, 50, and 47
LCUs, respectively. Conversely, change in residence (20 LCUs), change in
eating habits (15 LCUs), and vacation (13 LCUs) ranked low on the scale
([link]). Minor violations of the law ranked the
lowest with 11 LCUs. To complete the scale, participants checked yes for
events experienced within the last 12 months. LCUs for each checked item
are totaled for a score quantifying the amount of life change. Agreement
on the amount of adjustment required by the various life events on the
SRRS is highly consistent, even cross-culturally (Holmes & Masuda,
1974).
Some Stressors on the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Holmes & Rahe,
1967)
Life event
Life change units
Death of a close family member
63
Personal injury or illness
53
Dismissal from work
47
Change in financial state
38
Change to different line of work
36
Outstanding personal achievement
28
Beginning or ending school
26
Change in living conditions
25
Change in working hours or conditions
20
Change in residence
20
Change in schools
20
Change in social activities
18
Change in sleeping habits
16
Change in eating habits
15
Minor violation of the law
11
Extensive research has demonstrated that accumulating a high number of
life change units within a brief period of time (one or two years) is
related to a wide range of physical illnesses (even accidents and
athletic injuries) and mental health problems (Monat & Lazarus, 1991;
Scully, Tosi, & Banning, 2000). In an early demonstration, researchers
obtained LCU scores for U.S. and Norwegian Navy personnel who were about
to embark on a six-month voyage. A later examination of medical records
revealed positive (but small) correlations between LCU scores prior to
the voyage and subsequent illness symptoms during the ensuing six-month
journey (Rahe, 1974). In addition, people tend to experience more
physical symptoms, such as backache, upset stomach, diarrhea, and acne,
on specific days in which self-reported LCU values are considerably
higher than normal, such as the day of a family member’s wedding (Holmes
& Holmes, 1970).
The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) provides researchers a
simple, easy-to-administer way of assessing the amount of stress in
people’s lives, and it has been used in hundreds of studies (Thoits,
2010). Despite its widespread use, the scale has been subject to
criticism. First, many of the items on the SRRS are vague; for example,
death of a close friend could involve the death of a long-absent
childhood friend that requires little social readjustment (Dohrenwend,
2006). In addition, some have challenged its assumption that undesirable
life events are no more stressful than desirable ones (Derogatis &
Coons, 1993). However, most of the available evidence suggests that, at
least as far as mental health is concerned, undesirable or negative
events are more strongly associated with poor outcomes (such as
depression) than are desirable, positive events (Hatch & Dohrenwend,
2007). Perhaps the most serious criticism is that the scale does not
take into consideration respondents’ appraisals of the life events it
contains. As you recall, appraisal of a stressor is a key element in the
conceptualization and overall experience of stress. Being fired from
work may be devastating to some but a welcome opportunity to obtain a
better job for others. The SRRS remains one of the most well-known
instruments in the study of stress, and it is a useful tool for
identifying potential stress-related health outcomes (Scully et al.,
2000).
See also
Go to this site to complete the SRRS
scale and determine the total number of LCUs you have experienced
over the last year.
Correlational Research
The Holmes and Rahe Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) uses the
correlational researchpastehere method
to identify the connection between stress and health. That is,
respondents’ LCU scores are correlated with the number or frequency
of self-reported symptoms indicating health problems. These
correlations are typically positive—as LCU scores increase, the
number of symptoms increase. Consider all the thousands of studies
that have used this scale to correlate stress and illness symptoms:
If you were to assign an average correlation coefficient to this body
of research, what would be your best guess? How strong do you think
the correlation coefficient would be? Why can’t the SRRS show a
causal relationship between stress and illness? If it were possible
to show causation, do you think stress causes illness or illness
causes stress?
Potential stressors do not always involve major life events. Daily
hassles{: data-type=“term”}—the minor irritations and annoyances
that are part of our everyday lives (e.g., rush hour traffic, lost keys,
obnoxious coworkers, inclement weather, arguments with friends or
family)—can build on one another and leave us just as stressed as life
change events ([link]) (Kanner, Coyne,
Schaefer, & Lazarus, 1981).
{: #CNX_Psych_14_02_DailyHass}
Researchers have demonstrated that the frequency of daily hassles is
actually a better predictor of both physical and psychological health
than are life change units. In a well-known study of San Francisco
residents, the frequency of daily hassles was found to be more strongly
associated with physical health problems than were life change events
(DeLongis, Coyne, Dakof, Folkman, & Lazarus, 1982). In addition, daily
minor hassles, especially interpersonal conflicts, often lead to
negative and distressed mood states (Bolger, DeLongis, Kessler, &
Schilling, 1989). Cyber hassles that occur on social media may represent
a new source of stress. In one investigation, undergraduates who, over a
10-week period, reported greater Facebook-induced stress (e.g., guilt or
discomfort over rejecting friend requests and anger or sadness over
being unfriended by another) experienced increased rates of upper
respiratory infections, especially if they had larger social networks
(Campisi et al., 2012). Clearly, daily hassles can add up and take a
toll on us both emotionally and physically.
Stressors can include situations in which one is frequently exposed to
challenging and unpleasant events, such as difficult, demanding, or
unsafe working conditions. Although most jobs and occupations can at
times be demanding, some are clearly more stressful than others
([link]). For example, most people would
likely agree that a firefighter’s work is inherently more stressful than
that of a florist. Equally likely, most would agree that jobs containing
various unpleasant elements, such as those requiring exposure to loud
noise (heavy equipment operator), constant harassment and threats of
physical violence (prison guard), perpetual frustration (bus driver in a
major city), or those mandating that an employee work alternating day
and night shifts (hotel desk clerk), are much more demanding—and thus,
more stressful—than those that do not contain such elements.
[link] lists several occupations and some of the
specific stressors associated with those occupations (Sulsky & Smith,
2005).
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_02_Guard}
Occupations and Their Related Stressors
Occupation
Stressors Specific to Occupation (Sulsky & Smith, 2005)
Police officer
physical dangers, excessive paperwork, red tape, dealing with court
system, coworker and supervisor conflict, lack of support from the
public
Firefighter
uncertainty over whether a serious fire or hazard awaits after an alarm
Social worker
little positive feedback from jobs or from the public, unsafe work
environments, frustration in dealing with bureaucracy, excessive
paperwork, sense of personal responsibility for clients, work overload
Teacher
Excessive paperwork, lack of adequate supplies or facilities, work
overload, lack of positive feedback, vandalism, threat of physical
violence
Nurse
Work overload, heavy physical work, patient concerns (dealing with death
and medical concerns), interpersonal problems with other medical staff
(especially physicians)
Emergency medical worker
Unpredictable and extreme nature of the job, inexperience
Air traffic controller
Little control over potential crisis situations and workload, fear of
causing an accident, peak traffic situations, general work environment
Clerical and secretarial work
Little control over job mobility, unsupportive supervisors, work
overload, lack of perceived control
Managerial work
Work overload, conflict and ambiguity in defining the managerial role,
difficult work relationships
Although the specific stressors for these occupations are diverse, they
seem to share two common denominators: heavy workload and uncertainty
about and lack of control over certain aspects of a job. Both of these
factors contribute to job strain{: data-type=“term”}, a work
situation that combines excessive job demands and workload with little
discretion in decision making or job control (Karasek & Theorell, 1990).
Clearly, many occupations other than the ones listed in
[link] involve at least a moderate amount of job
strain in that they often involve heavy workloads and little job control
(e.g., inability to decide when to take breaks). Such jobs are often
low-status and include those of factory workers, postal clerks,
supermarket cashiers, taxi drivers, and short-order cooks. Job strain
can have adverse consequences on both physical and mental health; it has
been shown to be associated with increased risk of hypertension (Schnall
& Landsbergis, 1994), heart attacks (Theorell et al., 1998), recurrence
of heart disease after a first heart attack (Aboa-Éboulé et al., 2007),
significant weight loss or gain (Kivimäki et al., 2006), and major
depressive disorder (Stansfeld, Shipley, Head, & Fuhrer, 2012). A
longitudinal study of over 10,000 British civil servants reported that
workers under 50 years old who earlier had reported high job strain were
68% more likely to later develop heart disease than were those workers
under 50 years old who reported little job strain (Chandola et al.,
2008).
Some people who are exposed to chronically stressful work conditions can
experience job burnout{: data-type=“term”}, which is a general
sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one’s job
(Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Job burnout occurs frequently among those in
human service jobs (e.g., social workers, teachers, therapists, and
police officers). Job burnout consists of three dimensions. The first
dimension is exhaustion—a sense that one’s emotional resources are
drained or that one is at the end of her rope and has nothing more to
give at a psychological level. Second, job burnout is characterized by
depersonalization: a sense of emotional detachment between the worker
and the recipients of his services, often resulting in callous, cynical,
or indifferent attitudes toward these individuals. Third, job burnout is
characterized by diminished personal accomplishment, which is the
tendency to evaluate one’s work negatively by, for example, experiencing
dissatisfaction with one’s job-related accomplishments or feeling as
though one has categorically failed to influence others’ lives through
one’s work.
Job strain appears to be one of the greatest risk factors leading to job
burnout, which is most commonly observed in workers who are older (ages
55–64), unmarried, and whose jobs involve manual labor. Heavy alcohol
consumption, physical inactivity, being overweight, and having a
physical or lifetime mental disorder are also associated with job
burnout (Ahola, et al., 2006). In addition, depression often co-occurs
with job burnout. One large-scale study of over 3,000 Finnish employees
reported that half of the participants with severe job burnout had some
form of depressive disorder (Ahola et al., 2005). Job burnout is often
precipitated by feelings of having invested considerable energy, effort,
and time into one’s work while receiving little in return (e.g., little
respect or support from others or low pay) (Tatris, Peeters, Le Blanc,
Schreurs, & Schaufeli, 2001).
As an illustration, consider CharlieAnn, a nursing assistant who worked
in a nursing home. CharlieAnn worked long hours for little pay in a
difficult facility. Her supervisor was domineering, unpleasant, and
unsupportive; he was disrespectful of CharlieAnn’s personal time,
frequently informing her at the last minute she must work several
additional hours after her shift ended or that she must report to work
on weekends. CharlieAnn had very little autonomy at her job. She had
little say in her day-to-day duties and how to perform them, and she was
not permitted to take breaks unless her supervisor explicitly told her
that she could. CharlieAnn did not feel as though her hard work was
appreciated, either by supervisory staff or by the residents of the
home. She was very unhappy over her low pay, and she felt that many of
the residents treated her disrespectfully.
After several years, CharlieAnn began to hate her job. She dreaded going
to work in the morning, and she gradually developed a callous, hostile
attitude toward many of the residents. Eventually, she began to feel as
though she could no longer help the nursing home residents. CharlieAnn’s
absenteeism from work increased, and one day she decided that she had
had enough and quit. She now has a job in sales, vowing never to work in
nursing again.
See also
A humorous example illustrating lack of supervisory support can be
found in the 1999 comedy Office Space. Follow this
link to view a brief excerpt
in which a sympathetic character’s insufferable boss makes a
last-minute demand that he “go ahead and come in” to the office on
both Saturday and Sunday.
Finally, our close relationships with friends and family—particularly
the negative aspects of these relationships—can be a potent source of
stress. Negative aspects of close relationships can include adverse
exchanges and conflicts, lack of emotional support or confiding, and
lack of reciprocity. All of these can be overwhelming, threatening to
the relationship, and thus stressful. Such stressors can take a toll
both emotionally and physically. A longitudinal investigation of over
9,000 British civil servants found that those who at one point had
reported the highest levels of negative interactions in their closest
relationship were 34% more likely to experience serious heart problems
(fatal or nonfatal heart attacks) over a 13–15 year period, compared to
those who experienced the lowest levels of negative interaction (De
Vogli, Chandola & Marmot, 2007).
Stressors can be chronic (long term) or acute (short term), and can
include traumatic events, significant life changes, daily hassles, and
situations in which people are frequently exposed to challenging and
unpleasant events. Many potential stressors include events or situations
that require us to make changes in our lives, such as a divorce or
moving to a new residence. Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe developed the
Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) to measure stress by assigning a
number of life change units to life events that typically require some
adjustment, including positive events. Although the SRRS has been
criticized on a number of grounds, extensive research has shown that the
accumulation of many LCUs is associated with increased risk of illness.
Many potential stressors also include daily hassles, which are minor
irritations and annoyances that can build up over time. In addition,
jobs that are especially demanding, offer little control over one’s
working environment, or involve unfavorable working conditions can lead
to job strain, thereby setting the stage for job burnout.
Question
According to the Holmes and Rahe scale, which life event requires
the greatest amount of readjustment?
marriage
personal illness
divorce
death of spouse {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
While waiting to pay for his weekly groceries at the supermarket,
Paul had to wait about 20 minutes in a long line at the checkout
because only one cashier was on duty. When he was finally ready to
pay, his debit card was declined because he did not have enough
money left in his checking account. Because he had left his credit
cards at home, he had to place the groceries back into the cart
and head home to retrieve a credit card. While driving back to his
home, traffic was backed up two miles due to an accident. These
events that Paul had to endure are best characterized as
________.
chronic stressors
acute stressors
daily hassles
readjustment occurrences {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
What is one of the major criticisms of the Social Readjustment
Rating Scale?
It has too few items.
It was developed using only people from the New England region
of the United States.
It does not take into consideration how a person appraises an
event.
None of the items included are positive. {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Which of the following is not a dimension of job burnout?
Review the items on the Social Readjustment Rating Scale. Select
one of the items and discuss how it might bring about distress and
eustress.
Answers will vary. For example, many people look forward to
celebrating the Christmas holiday, but it can be stressful in that
it requires some degree of readjustment. Getting together with
family may bring eustress, while the schedule and travel demands
of may bring distress. Giving gifts to others and seeing their
enjoyment may bring eustress, but the financial burden associated
with buying presents could produce distress. Each of these things
requires making some minor adjustments to one’s life, and thus is
considered somewhat stressful.
Job burnout tends to be high in people who work in human service
jobs. Considering the three dimensions of job burnout, explain how
various job aspects unique to being a police officer might lead to
job burnout in that line of work.
Answers will vary. Many calls that police officers make can be
emotionally draining (e.g., tragic deaths, suicides, and children
who live in squalid conditions), which might eventually lead to
feelings of exhaustion that one can no longer deal with such
things. Depersonalization may occur if a police officer works in
an environment in which she feels disrespected and unappreciated,
which may lead to cynical and callous feelings toward the public.
Constant disrespect from others may diminish a police officer’s
sense of personal accomplishment.
Suppose you want to design a study to examine the relationship
between stress and illness, but you cannot use the Social
Readjustment Rating Scale. How would you go about measuring
stress? How would you measure illness? What would you need to do
in order to tell if there is a cause-effect relationship between
stress and illness?
general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to
one’s job; consists of three dimensions: exhaustion,
depersonalization, and sense of diminished personal accomplishment
^
popular scale designed to measure stress; consists of 43
potentially stressful events, each of which has a numerical value
quantifying how much readjustment is associated with the event
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain the
nature of psychophysiological disorders * Describe the immune system
and how stress impacts its functioning * Describe how stress and
emotional factors can lead to the development and exacerbation of
cardiovascular disorders, asthma, and tension headaches
In this section, we will discuss stress{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} and illness. As stress researcher Robert Sapolsky (1998)
describes,
stress-related disease emerges, predominantly, out of the fact that
we so often activate a physiological system that has evolved for
responding to acute physical emergencies, but we turn it on for
months on end, worrying about mortgages, relationships, and
promotions. (p. 6)
The stress response, as noted earlier, consists of a coordinated but
complex system of physiological reactions that are called upon as
needed. These reactions are beneficial at times because they prepare us
to deal with potentially dangerous or threatening situations (for
example, recall our old friend, the fearsome bear on the trail).
However, health is affected when physiological reactions are sustained,
as can happen in response to ongoing stress.
If the reactions that compose the stress response are chronic or if they
frequently exceed normal ranges, they can lead to cumulative wear and
tear on the body, in much the same way that running your air conditioner
on full blast all summer will eventually cause wear and tear on it. For
example, the high blood pressure that a person under considerable job
strain experiences might eventually take a toll on his heart and set the
stage for a heart attack or heart failure. Also, someone exposed to high
levels of the stress hormone cortisol might become vulnerable to
infection or disease because of weakened immune system functioning
(McEwen, 1998).
See also
Robert Sapolsky, a noted Stanford University neurobiologist and
professor, has for over 30 years conducted extensive research on
stress, its impact on our bodies, and how psychological tumult can
escalate stress—even in baboons. Here are two videos featuring
Dr. Sapolsky: one is regarding killer
stress and the other is an
excellent in-depth documentary
from National Geographic.
Physical disorders or diseases whose symptoms are brought about or
worsened by stress and emotional factors are called
psychophysiological disorders{: data-type=“term”}. The physical
symptoms of psychophysiological disorders are real and they can be
produced or exacerbated by psychological factors (hence the psycho and
physiological in psychophysiological). A list of frequently
encountered psychophysiological disorders is provided in
[link].
Types of Psychophysiological Disorders (adapted from Everly & Lating,
2002)
Type of Psychophysiological Disorder
Examples
Cardiovascular
hypertension, coronary heart disease
Gastrointestinal
irritable bowel syndrome
Respiratory
asthma, allergy
Musculoskeletal
low back pain, tension headaches
Skin
acne, eczema, psoriasis
In addition to stress itself, emotional upset and certain stressful
personality traits have been proposed as potential contributors to ill
health. Franz Alexander (1950), an early-20th-century psychoanalyst and
physician, once postulated that various diseases are caused by specific
unconscious conflicts. For example, he linked hypertension to repressed
anger, asthma to separation anxiety, and ulcers to an unconscious desire
to “remain in the dependent infantile situation—to be loved and cared
for” (Alexander, 1950, p. 102). Although hypertension does appear to be
linked to anger (as you will learn below), Alexander’s assertions have
not been supported by research. Years later, Friedman and Booth-Kewley
(1987), after statistically reviewing 101 studies examining the link
between personality and illness, proposed the existence of disease-prone
personality characteristics, including depression, anger/hostility, and
anxiety. Indeed, a study of over 61,000 Norwegians identified depression
as a risk factor for all major disease-related causes of death (Mykletun
et al., 2007). In addition, neuroticism—a personality trait that
reflects how anxious, moody, and sad one is—has been identified as a
risk factor for chronic health problems and mortality (Ploubidis &
Grundy, 2009).
Below, we discuss two kinds of psychophysiological disorders about which
a great deal is known: cardiovascular disorders and asthma. First,
however, it is necessary to turn our attention to a discussion of the
immune system—one of the major pathways through which stress and
emotional factors can lead to illness and disease.
In a sense, the immune system{: data-type=“term”} is the body’s
surveillance system. It consists of a variety of structures, cells, and
mechanisms that serve to protect the body from invading toxins and
microorganisms that can harm or damage the body’s tissues and organs.
When the immune system is working as it should, it keeps us healthy and
disease free by eliminating bacteria, viruses, and other foreign
substances that have entered the body (Everly & Lating, 2002).
Sometimes, the immune system will function erroneously. For example,
sometimes it can go awry by mistaking your body’s own healthy cells for
invaders and repeatedly attacking them. When this happens, the person is
said to have an autoimmune disease, which can affect almost any part of
the body. How an autoimmune disease affects a person depends on what
part of the body is targeted. For instance, rheumatoid arthritis, an
autoimmune disease that affects the joints, results in joint pain,
stiffness, and loss of function. Systemic lupus erythematosus, an
autoimmune disease that affects the skin, can result in rashes and
swelling of the skin. Grave’s disease, an autoimmune disease that
affects the thyroid gland, can result in fatigue, weight gain, and
muscle aches (National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and
Skin Diseases [NIAMS], 2012).
In addition, the immune system may sometimes break down and be unable to
do its job. This situation is referred to as immunosuppression{:
data-type=“term”}, the decreased effectiveness of the immune system.
When people experience immunosuppression, they become susceptible to any
number of infections, illness, and diseases. For example, acquired
immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a serious and lethal disease that
is caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which greatly weakens
the immune system by infecting and destroying antibody-producing cells,
thus rendering a person vulnerable to any of a number of opportunistic
infections (Powell, 1996).
The question of whether stress and negative emotional states can
influence immune function has captivated researchers for over three
decades, and discoveries made over that time have dramatically changed
the face of health psychology (Kiecolt-Glaser, 2009).
Psychoneuroimmunology{: data-type=“term”} is the field that
studies how psychological factors such as stress influence the immune
system and immune functioning. The term psychoneuroimmunology was first
coined in 1981, when it appeared as the title of a book that reviewed
available evidence for associations between the brain, endocrine system,
and immune system (Zacharie, 2009). To a large extent, this field
evolved from the discovery that there is a connection between the
central nervous system and the immune system.
Some of the most compelling evidence for a connection between the brain
and the immune system comes from studies in which researchers
demonstrated that immune responses in animals could be classically
conditioned (Everly & Lating, 2002). For example, Ader and Cohen (1975)
paired flavored water (the conditioned stimulus) with the presentation
of an immunosuppressive drug (the unconditioned stimulus), causing
sickness (an unconditioned response). Not surprisingly, rats exposed to
this pairing developed a conditioned aversion to the flavored water.
However, the taste of the water itself later produced immunosuppression
(a conditioned response), indicating that the immune system itself had
been conditioned. Many subsequent studies over the years have further
demonstrated that immune responses can be classically conditioned in
both animals and humans (Ader & Cohen, 2001). Thus, if classical
conditioning can alter immunity, other psychological factors should be
capable of altering it as well.
Hundreds of studies involving tens of thousands of participants have
tested many kinds of brief and chronic stressors and their effect on the
immune system (e.g., public speaking, medical school examinations,
unemployment, marital discord, divorce, death of spouse, burnout and job
strain, caring for a relative with Alzheimer’s disease, and exposure to
the harsh climate of Antarctica). It has been repeatedly demonstrated
that many kinds of stressors are associated with poor or weakened immune
functioning (Glaser & Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005; Kiecolt-Glaser, McGuire,
Robles, & Glaser, 2002; Segerstrom & Miller, 2004).
When evaluating these findings, it is important to remember that there
is a tangible physiological connection between the brain and the immune
system. For example, the sympathetic nervous system innervates immune
organs such as the thymus, bone marrow, spleen, and even lymph nodes
(Maier, Watkins, & Fleshner, 1994). Also, we noted earlier that stress
hormones released during hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
activation can adversely impact immune function. One way they do this is
by inhibiting the production of lymphocytes{: data-type=“term”},
white blood cells that circulate in the body’s fluids that are important
in the immune response (Everly & Lating, 2002).
Some of the more dramatic examples demonstrating the link between stress
and impaired immune function involve studies in which volunteers were
exposed to viruses. The rationale behind this research is that because
stress weakens the immune system, people with high stress levels should
be more likely to develop an illness compared to those under little
stress. In one memorable experiment using this method, researchers
interviewed 276 healthy volunteers about recent stressful experiences
(Cohen et al., 1998). Following the interview, these participants were
given nasal drops containing the cold virus (in case you are wondering
why anybody would ever want to participate in a study in which they are
subjected to such treatment, the participants were paid $800 for their
trouble). When examined later, participants who reported experiencing
chronic stressors for more than one month—especially enduring
difficulties involving work or relationships—were considerably more
likely to have developed colds than were participants who reported no
chronic stressors ([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_StressCold}
In another study, older volunteers were given an influenza virus
vaccination. Compared to controls, those who were caring for a spouse
with Alzheimer’s disease (and thus were under chronic stress) showed
poorer antibody response following the vaccination (Kiecolt-Glaser,
Glaser, Gravenstein, Malarkey, & Sheridan, 1996).
Other studies have demonstrated that stress slows down wound healing by
impairing immune responses important to wound repair (Glaser &
Kiecolt-Glaser, 2005). In one study, for example, skin blisters were
induced on the forearm. Subjects who reported higher levels of stress
produced lower levels of immune proteins necessary for wound healing
(Glaser et al., 1999). Stress, then, is not so much the sword that kills
the knight, so to speak; rather, it’s the sword that breaks the knight’s
shield, and your immune system is that shield.
Tip
Stress and Aging: A Tale of Telomeres
Have you ever wondered why people who are stressed often seem to have
a haggard look about them? A pioneering study from 2004 suggests that
the reason is because stress can actually accelerate the cell biology
of aging.
Stress, it seems, can shorten telomeres, which are segments of DNA
that protect the ends of chromosomes. Shortened telomeres can inhibit
or block cell division, which includes growth and proliferation of
new cells, thereby leading to more rapid aging (Sapolsky, 2004). In
the study, researchers compared telomere{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} lengths in the white blood cells in mothers of
chronically ill children to those of mothers of healthy children
(Epel et al., 2004). Mothers of chronically ill children would be
expected to experience more stress than would mothers of healthy
children. The longer a mother had spent caring for her ill child, the
shorter her telomeres (the correlation between years of caregiving
and telomere length was r = -.40). In addition, higher levels of
perceived stress were negatively correlated with telomere size (r =
-.31). These researchers also found that the average telomere length
of the most stressed mothers, compared to the least stressed, was
similar to what you would find in people who were 9–17 years older
than they were on average.
Numerous other studies since have continued to find associations
between stress and eroded telomeres (Blackburn & Epel, 2012). Some
studies have even demonstrated that stress can begin to erode
telomeres in childhood and perhaps even before children are born. For
example, childhood exposure to violence (e.g., maternal domestic
violence, bullying victimization, and physical maltreatment) was
found in one study to accelerate telomere erosion from ages 5 to 10
(Shalev et al., 2013). Another study reported that young adults whose
mothers had experienced severe stress during their pregnancy had
shorter telomeres than did those whose mothers had stress-free and
uneventful pregnancies (Entringer et al., 2011). Further, the
corrosive effects of childhood stress on telomeres can extend into
young adulthood. In an investigation of over 4,000 U.K. women ages
41–80, adverse experiences during childhood (e.g., physical abuse,
being sent away from home, and parent divorce) were associated with
shortened telomere length (Surtees et al., 2010), and telomere size
decreased as the amount of experienced adversity increased
([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_Telomeres}
Efforts to dissect the precise cellular and physiological mechanisms
linking short telomeres to stress and disease are currently underway.
For the time being, telomeres provide us with yet another reminder
that stress, especially during early life, can be just as harmful to
our health as smoking or fast food (Blackburn & Epel, 2012).
The cardiovascular system is composed of the heart and blood circulation
system. For many years, disorders that involve the cardiovascular
system—known as cardiovascular disorders{: data-type=“term”}—have
been a major focal point in the study of psychophysiological disorders
because of the cardiovascular system’s centrality in the stress response
(Everly & Lating, 2002). Heart disease is one such condition. Each
year, heart disease causes approximately one in three deaths in the
United States, and it is the leading cause of death in the developed
world (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2011; Shapiro,
2005).
The symptoms of heart disease vary somewhat depending on the specific
kind of heart disease one has, but they generally involve angina—chest
pains or discomfort that occur when the heart does not receive enough
blood (Office on Women’s Health, 2009). The pain often feels like the
chest is being pressed or squeezed; burning sensations in the chest and
shortness of breath are also commonly reported. Such pain and discomfort
can spread to the arms, neck, jaws, stomach (as nausea), and back
(American Heart Association [AHA], 2012a)
([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_Symptoms}
A major risk factor for heart disease is hypertension{:
data-type=“term”}, which is high blood pressure. Hypertension forces a
person’s heart to pump harder, thus putting more physical strain on the
heart. If left unchecked, hypertension can lead to a heart attack,
stroke, or heart failure; it can also lead to kidney failure and
blindness. Hypertension is a serious cardiovascular disorder, and it is
sometimes called the silent killer because it has no symptoms—one who
has high blood pressure may not even be aware of it (AHA, 2012b).
Many risk factors contributing to cardiovascular disorders have been
identified. These risk factors include social determinants such as
aging, income, education, and employment status, as well as behavioral
risk factors that include unhealthy diet, tobacco use, physical
inactivity, and excessive alcohol consumption; obesity and diabetes are
additional risk factors (World Health Organization [WHO], 2013).
Over the past few decades, there has been much greater recognition and
awareness of the importance of stress and other psychological factors in
cardiovascular health (Nusair, Al-dadah, & Kumar, 2012). Indeed,
exposure to stressors of many kinds has also been linked to
cardiovascular problems; in the case of hypertension, some of these
stressors include job strain (Trudel, Brisson, & Milot, 2010), natural
disasters (Saito, Kim, Maekawa, Ikeda, & Yokoyama, 1997), marital
conflict (Nealey-Moore, Smith, Uchino, Hawkins, & Olson-Cerny, 2007),
and exposure to high traffic noise levels at one’s home (de Kluizenaar,
Gansevoort, Miedema, & de Jong, 2007). Perceived discrimination appears
to be associated with hypertension among African Americans (Sims et al.,
2012). In addition, laboratory-based stress tasks, such as performing
mental arithmetic under time pressure, immersing one’s hand into ice
water (known as the cold pressor test), mirror tracing, and public
speaking have all been shown to elevate blood pressure (Phillips, 2011).
Sometimes research ideas and theories emerge from seemingly trivial
observations. In the 1950s, cardiologist Meyer Friedman was looking over
his waiting room furniture, which consisted of upholstered chairs with
armrests. Friedman decided to have these chairs reupholstered. When the
man doing the reupholstering came to the office to do the work, he
commented on how the chairs were worn in a unique manner—the front edges
of the cushions were worn down, as were the front tips of the arm rests.
It seemed like the cardiology patients were tapping or squeezing the
front of the armrests, as well as literally sitting on the edge of their
seats (Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). Were cardiology patients somehow
different than other types of patients? If so, how?
After researching this matter, Friedman and his colleague, Ray Rosenman,
came to understand that people who are prone to heart disease tend to
think, feel, and act differently than those who are not. These
individuals tend to be intensively driven workaholics who are
preoccupied with deadlines and always seem to be in a rush. According to
Friedman and Rosenman, these individuals exhibit Type A{:
data-type=“term”} behavior pattern; those who are more relaxed and
laid-back were characterized as Type B{: data-type=“term”}
([link]). In a sample of Type As and Type
Bs, Friedman and Rosenman were startled to discover that heart disease
was over seven times more frequent among the Type As than the Type Bs
(Friedman & Rosenman, 1959).
{: #CNX_Psych_14_03_TypeAB}
The major components of the Type A pattern include an aggressive and
chronic struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time
(Friedman & Rosenman, 1974). Specific characteristics of the Type A
pattern include an excessive competitive drive, chronic sense of time
urgency, impatience, and hostility toward others (particularly those who
get in the person’s way).
An example of a person who exhibits Type A behavior pattern is Jeffrey.
Even as a child, Jeffrey was intense and driven. He excelled at school,
was captain of the swim team, and graduated with honors from an Ivy
League college. Jeffrey never seems able to relax; he is always working
on something, even on the weekends. However, Jeffrey always seems to
feel as though there are not enough hours in the day to accomplish all
he feels he should. He volunteers to take on extra tasks at work and
often brings his work home with him; he often goes to bed angry late at
night because he feels that he has not done enough. Jeffrey is quick
tempered with his coworkers; he often becomes noticeably agitated when
dealing with those coworkers he feels work too slowly or whose work does
not meet his standards. He typically reacts with hostility when
interrupted at work. He has experienced problems in his marriage over
his lack of time spent with family. When caught in traffic during his
commute to and from work, Jeffrey incessantly pounds on his horn and
swears loudly at other drivers. When Jeffrey was 52, he suffered his
first heart attack.
By the 1970s, a majority of practicing cardiologists believed that Type
A behavior pattern was a significant risk factor for heart disease
(Friedman, 1977). Indeed, a number of early longitudinal investigations
demonstrated a link between Type A behavior pattern and later
development of heart disease (Rosenman et al., 1975; Haynes, Feinleib, &
Kannel, 1980).
Subsequent research examining the association between Type A and heart
disease, however, failed to replicate these earlier findings (Glassman,
2007; Myrtek, 2001). Because Type A theory did not pan out as well as
they had hoped, researchers shifted their attention toward determining
if any of the specific elements of Type A predict heart disease.
Extensive research clearly suggests that the anger/hostility dimension
of Type A behavior pattern may be one of the most important factors in
the development of heart disease. This relationship was initially
described in the Haynes et al. (1980) study mentioned above: Suppressed
hostility was found to substantially elevate the risk of heart disease
for both men and women. Also, one investigation followed over 1,000 male
medical students from 32 to 48 years. At the beginning of the study,
these men completed a questionnaire assessing how they react to
pressure; some indicated that they respond with high levels of
angerpastehere, whereas others indicated
that they respond with less anger. Decades later, researchers found that
those who earlier had indicated the highest levels of anger were over 6
times more likely than those who indicated less anger to have had a
heart attack by age 55, and they were 3.5 times more likely to have
experienced heart disease by the same age (Chang, Ford, Meoni, Wang, &
Klag, 2002). From a health standpoint, it clearly does not pay to be an
angry young person.
After reviewing and statistically summarizing 35 studies from 1983 to
2006, Chida and Steptoe (2009) concluded that the bulk of the evidence
suggests that anger and hostility constitute serious long-term risk
factors for adverse cardiovascular outcomes among both healthy
individuals and those already suffering from heart disease. One reason
angry and hostile moods might contribute to cardiovascular diseases is
that such moods can create social strain, mainly in the form of
antagonistic social encounters with others. This strain could then lay
the foundation for disease-promoting cardiovascular responses among
hostile individuals (Vella, Kamarck, Flory, & Manuck, 2012). In this
transactional model, hostility and social strain form a cycle
([link]).
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_Transactional}
For example, suppose Kaitlin has a hostile disposition; she has a
cynical, distrustful attitude toward others and often thinks that other
people are out to get her. She is very defensive around people, even
those she has known for years, and she is always looking for signs that
others are either disrespecting or belittling her. In the shower each
morning before work, she often mentally rehearses what she would say to
someone who said or did something that angered her, such as making a
political statement that was counter to her own ideology. As Kaitlin
goes through these mental rehearsals, she often grins and thinks about
the retaliation on anyone who will irk her that day.
Socially, she is confrontational and tends to use a harsh tone with
people, which often leads to very disagreeable and sometimes
argumentative social interactions. As you might imagine, Kaitlin is not
especially popular with others, including coworkers, neighbors, and even
members of her own family. They either avoid her at all costs or snap
back at her, which causes Kaitlin to become even more cynical and
distrustful of others, making her disposition even more hostile.
Kaitlin’s hostility—through her own doing—has created an antagonistic
environment that cyclically causes her to become even more hostile and
angry, thereby potentially setting the stage for cardiovascular
problems.
In addition to anger and hostility, a number of other negative emotional
states have been linked with heart disease, including negative
affectivity and depression (Suls & Bunde, 2005). Negative
affectivity{: data-type=“term”} is a tendency to experience
distressed emotional states involving anger, contempt, disgust, guilt,
fear, and nervousness (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). It has been
linked with the development of both hypertension and heart disease. For
example, over 3,000 initially healthy participants in one study were
tracked longitudinally, up to 22 years. Those with higher levels of
negative affectivity at the time the study began were substantially more
likely to develop and be treated for hypertension during the ensuing
years than were those with lower levels of negative affectivity (Jonas &
Lando, 2000). In addition, a study of over 10,000 middle-aged
London-based civil servants who were followed an average of 12.5 years
revealed that those who earlier had scored in the upper third on a test
of negative affectivity were 32% more likely to have experienced heart
disease, heart attack, or angina over a period of years than were those
who scored in the lowest third (Nabi, Kivimaki, De Vogli, Marmot, &
Singh-Manoux, 2008). Hence, negative affectivity appears to be a
potentially vital risk factor for the development of cardiovascular
disorders.
For centuries, poets and folklore have asserted that there is a
connection between moods and the heart (Glassman & Shapiro, 1998). You
are no doubt familiar with the notion of a broken heart following a
disappointing or depressing event and have encountered that notion in
songs, films, and literature.
Perhaps the first to recognize the link between depression{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} and heart disease{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} was Benjamin Malzberg (1937), who found
that the death rate among institutionalized patients with melancholia
(an archaic term for depression) was six times higher than that of the
population. A classic study in the late 1970s looked at over 8,000
manic-depressive persons in Denmark, finding a nearly 50% increase in
deaths from heart disease among these patients compared with the general
Danish population (Weeke, 1979). By the early 1990s, evidence began to
accumulate showing that depressed individuals who were followed for long
periods of time were at increased risk for heart disease and cardiac
death (Glassman, 2007). In one investigation of over 700 Denmark
residents, those with the highest depression scores were 71% more likely
to have experienced a heart attack than were those with lower depression
scores (Barefoot & Schroll, 1996).
[link] illustrates the gradation in risk
of heart attacks for both men and women.
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_HeartAtt}
After more than two decades of research, it is now clear that a
relationship exists: Patients with heart disease have more depression
than the general population, and people with depression are more likely
to eventually develop heart disease and experience higher mortality than
those who do not have depression (Hare, Toukhsati, Johansson, & Jaarsma,
2013); the more severe the depression, the higher the risk (Glassman,
2007). Consider the following:
In one study, death rates from cardiovascular problems was
substantially higher in depressed people; depressed men were 50% more
likely to have died from cardiovascular problems, and depressed women
were 70% more likely (Ösby, Brandt, Correia, Ekbom, & Sparén, 2001).
A statistical review of 10 longitudinal studies involving initially
healthy individuals revealed that those with elevated depressive
symptoms have, on average, a 64% greater risk of developing heart
disease than do those with fewer symptoms (Wulsin & Singal, 2003).
A study of over 63,000 registered nurses found that those with more
depressed symptoms when the study began were 49% more likely to
experience fatal heart disease over a 12-year period (Whang et al.,
2009).
The American Heart Association, fully aware of the established
importance of depression in cardiovascular diseases, several years ago
recommended routine depression screening for all heart disease patients
(Lichtman et al., 2008). Recently, they have recommended including
depression as a risk factor for heart disease patients (AHA, 2014).
Although the exact mechanisms through which depression might produce
heart problems have not been fully clarified, a recent investigation
examining this connection in early life has shed some light. In an
ongoing study of childhood depression, adolescents who had been
diagnosed with depression as children were more likely to be obese,
smoke, and be physically inactive than were those who had not received
this diagnosis (Rottenberg et al., 2014). One implication of this study
is that depression, especially if it occurs early in life, may increase
the likelihood of living an unhealthy lifestyle, thereby predisposing
people to an unfavorable cardiovascular disease risk profile.
It is important to point out that depression may be just one piece of
the emotional puzzle in elevating the risk for heart disease, and that
chronically experiencing several negative emotional states may be
especially important. A longitudinal investigation of Vietnam War
veterans found that depression, anxiety, hostility, and trait anger each
independently predicted the onset of heart disease (Boyle, Michalek, &
Suarez, 2006). However, when each of these negative psychological
attributes was combined into a single variable, this new variable (which
researchers called psychological risk factor) predicted heart disease
more strongly than any of the individual variables. Thus, rather than
examining the predictive power of isolated psychological risk factors,
it seems crucial for future researchers to examine the effects of
combined and more general negative emotional and psychological traits in
the development of cardiovascular illnesses.
Asthma{: data-type=“term”} is a chronic and serious disease in
which the airways of the respiratory system become obstructed, leading
to great difficulty expelling air from the lungs. The airway obstruction
is caused by inflammation of the airways (leading to thickening of the
airway walls) and a tightening of the muscles around them, resulting in
a narrowing of the airways ([link])
(American Lung Association, 2010). Because airways become obstructed, a
person with asthma will sometimes have great difficulty breathing and
will experience repeated episodes of wheezing, chest tightness,
shortness of breath, and coughing, the latter occurring mostly during
the morning and night (CDC, 2006).
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_Asthma}
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC),
around 4,000 people die each year from asthma-related causes, and asthma
is a contributing factor to another 7,000 deaths each year (CDC, 2013a).
The CDC has revealed that asthma affects 18.7 million U.S. adults and is
more common among people with lower education and income levels (CDC,
2013b). Especially concerning is that asthma is on the rise, with rates
of asthma increasing 157% between 2000 and 2010 (CDC, 2013b).
Asthma attacks are acute episodes in which an asthma sufferer
experiences the full range of symptoms. Asthma exacerbation is often
triggered by environmental factors, such as air pollution, allergens
(e.g., pollen, mold, and pet hairs), cigarette smoke, airway infections,
cold air or a sudden change in temperature, and exercise (CDC, 2013b).
Psychological factors appear to play an important role in asthma
(Wright, Rodriguez, & Cohen, 1998), although some believe that
psychological factors serve as potential triggers in only a subset of
asthma patients (Ritz, Steptoe, Bobb, Harris, & Edwards, 2006). Many
studies over the years have demonstrated that some people with asthma
will experience asthma-like symptoms if they expect to experience such
symptoms, such as when breathing an inert substance that they (falsely)
believe will lead to airway obstruction (Sodergren & Hyland, 1999). As
stress and emotions directly affect immune and respiratory functions,
psychological factors likely serve as one of the most common triggers of
asthma exacerbation (Trueba & Ritz, 2013).
People with asthma tend to report and display a high level of negative
emotions such as anxiety, and asthma attacks have been linked to periods
of high emotionality (Lehrer, Isenberg, & Hochron, 1993). In addition,
high levels of emotional distress during both laboratory tasks and daily
life have been found to negatively affect airway function and can
produce asthma-like symptoms in people with asthma (von Leupoldt, Ehnes,
& Dahme, 2006). In one investigation, 20 adults with asthma wore
preprogrammed wristwatches that signaled them to breathe into a portable
device that measures airway function. Results showed that higher levels
of negative emotions and stress were associated with increased airway
obstruction and self-reported asthma symptoms (Smyth, Soefer, Hurewitz,
Kliment, & Stone, 1999). In addition, D’Amato, Liccardi, Cecchi,
Pellegrino, & D’Amato (2010) described a case study of an 18-year-old
man with asthma whose girlfriend had broken up with him, leaving him in
a depressed state. She had also unfriended him on Facebook , while
friending other young males. Eventually, the young man was able to
“friend” her once again and could monitor her activity through Facebook.
Subsequently, he would experience asthma symptoms whenever he logged on
and accessed her profile. When he later resigned not to use Facebook any
longer, the asthma attacks stopped. This case suggests that the use of
Facebook and other forms of social media may represent a new source of
stress—it may be a triggering factor for asthma attacks, especially in
depressed asthmatic individuals.
Exposure to stressful experiences, particularly those that involve
parental or interpersonal conflicts, has been linked to the development
of asthma throughout the lifespan. A longitudinal study of 145 children
found that parenting difficulties during the first year of life
increased the chances that the child developed asthma by 107% (Klinnert
et al., 2001). In addition, a cross-sectional study of over 10,000
Finnish college students found that high rates of parent or personal
conflicts (e.g., parental divorce, separation from spouse, or severe
conflicts in other long-term relationships) increased the risk of asthma
onset (Kilpeläinen, Koskenvuo, Helenius, & Terho, 2002). Further, a
study of over 4,000 middle-aged men who were interviewed in the early
1990s and again a decade later found that breaking off an important life
partnership (e.g., divorce or breaking off relationship from parents)
increased the risk of developing asthma by 124% over the time of the
study (Loerbroks, Apfelbacher, Thayer, Debling, & Stürmer, 2009).
A headache is a continuous pain anywhere in the head and neck region.
Migraine headaches are a type of headache thought to be caused by blood
vessel swelling and increased blood flow (McIntosh, 2013). Migraines are
characterized by severe pain on one or both sides of the head, an upset
stomach, and disturbed vision. They are more frequently experienced by
women than by men (American Academy of Neurology, 2014). Tension
headaches are triggered by tightening/tensing of facial and neck
muscles; they are the most commonly experienced kind of headache,
accounting for about 42% of all headaches worldwide (Stovner et al.,
2007). In the United States, well over one-third of the population
experiences tension headaches each year, and 2–3% of the population
suffers from chronic tension headaches (Schwartz, Stewart, Simon, &
Lipton, 1998).
A number of factors can contribute to tension headaches, including sleep
deprivation, skipping meals, eye strain, overexertion, muscular tension
caused by poor posture, and stress (MedicineNet, 2013). Although there
is uncertainty regarding the exact mechanisms through which stress can
produce tension headaches, stress has been demonstrated to increase
sensitivity to pain (Caceres & Burns, 1997; Logan et al., 2001). In
general, tension headache sufferers, compared to non-sufferers, have a
lower threshold for and greater sensitivity to pain (Ukestad & Wittrock,
1996), and they report greater levels of subjective stress when faced
with a stressor (Myers, Wittrock, & Foreman, 1998). Thus, stress may
contribute to tension headaches by increasing pain sensitivity in
already-sensitive pain pathways in tension headache sufferers (Cathcart,
Petkov, & Pritchard, 2008).
Psychophysiological disorders are physical diseases that are either
brought about or worsened by stress and other emotional factors. One of
the mechanisms through which stress and emotional factors can influence
the development of these diseases is by adversely affecting the body’s
immune system. A number of studies have demonstrated that stress weakens
the functioning of the immune system. Cardiovascular disorders are
serious medical conditions that have been consistently shown to be
influenced by stress and negative emotions, such as anger, negative
affectivity, and depression. Other psychophysiological disorders that
are known to be influenced by stress and emotional factors include
asthma and tension headaches.
Question
The white blood cells that attack foreign invaders to the body are
called ________.
antibodies
telomeres
lymphocytes
immune cells {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
The risk of heart disease is especially high among individuals
with ________.
depression
asthma
telomeres
lymphocytes {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
The most lethal dimension of Type A behavior pattern seems to be
________.
hostility
impatience
time urgency
competitive drive {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Which of the following statements pertaining to asthma is false?
Parental and interpersonal conflicts have been tied to the
development of asthma.
Asthma sufferers can experience asthma-like symptoms simply by
believing that an inert substance they breathe will lead to
airway obstruction.
Asthma has been shown to be linked to periods of depression.
Rates of asthma have decreased considerably since 2000. {:
type=“a”}
Discuss the concept of Type A behavior pattern, its history, and
what we now know concerning its role in heart disease.
Type A was conceptualized as a behavioral style characterized by
competitiveness, time urgency, impatience, and anger/hostility. It
was later discovered, however, that anger/hostility seems to be
the dimension that most clearly predicts heart disease.
Consider the study in which volunteers were given nasal drops
containing the cold virus to examine the relationship between
stress and immune function (Cohen et al., 1998). How might this
finding explain how people seem to become sick during stressful
times in their lives (e.g., final exam week)?
The results of the study showed that people exposed to the virus
were more likely to develop a cold if they had high stress scores.
The implication of this finding is that during stressful times,
like final exam weeks, the immune system becomes compromised.
Thus, it’s much easier to get sick during these periods because
the immune system is not working at full capacity.
If a family member or friend of yours has asthma, talk to that
person (if he or she is willing) about their symptom triggers.
Does this person mention stress or emotional states? If so, are
there any commonalities in these asthma triggers?
psychophysiological disorder in which the airways of the
respiratory system become obstructed, leading to great difficulty
expelling air from the lungs ^
several types of adverse heart conditions, including those that
involve the heart’s arteries or valves or those involving the
inability of the heart to pump enough blood to meet the body’s
needs; can include heart attack and stroke ^
psychological and behavior pattern exhibited by a person who is
relaxed and laid back
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define coping and
differentiate between problem-focused and emotion-focused coping *
Describe the importance of perceived control in our reactions to
stress * Explain how social support is vital in health and longevity
As we learned in the previous section, stress{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis}—especially if it is chronic—takes a toll on our bodies and
can have enormously negative health implications. When we experience
events in our lives that we appraise as stressful, it is essential that
we use effective coping strategies to manage our stress. Coping{:
data-type=“term”} refers to mental and behavioral efforts that we use to
deal with problems relating to stress, including its presumed cause and
the unpleasant feelings and emotions it produces.
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) distinguished two fundamental kinds of
coping: problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping. In
problem-focused coping, one attempts to manage or alter the problem that
is causing one to experience stress (i.e., the stressor).
Problem-focused coping strategies are similar to strategies used in
everyday problem-solving: they typically involve identifying the
problem, considering possible solutions, weighing the costs and benefits
of these solutions, and then selecting an alternative (Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984). As an example, suppose Bradford receives a midterm
notice that he is failing statistics class. If Bradford adopts a
problem-focused copingpastehere approach
to managing his stress, he would be proactive in trying to alleviate the
source of the stress. He might contact his professor to discuss what
must be done to raise his grade, he might also decide to set aside two
hours daily to study statistics assignments, and he may seek tutoring
assistance. A problem-focused approach to managing stress means we
actively try to do things to address the problem.
Emotion-focused coping, in contrast, consists of efforts to change or
reduce the negative emotions associated with stress. These efforts may
include avoiding, minimizing, or distancing oneself from the problem, or
positive comparisons with others (“I’m not as bad off as she is”), or
seeking something positive in a negative event (“Now that I’ve been
fired, I can sleep in for a few days”). In some cases, emotion-focused
copingpastehere strategies involve
reappraisal, whereby the stressor is construed differently (and somewhat
self-deceptively) without changing its objective level of threat
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). For example, a person sentenced to federal
prison who thinks, “This will give me a great chance to network with
others,” is using reappraisal. If Bradford adopted an emotion-focused
approach to managing his midterm deficiency stress, he might watch a
comedy movie, play video games, or spend hours on Twitter to take his
mind off the situation. In a certain sense, emotion-focused coping can
be thought of as treating the symptoms rather than the actual cause.
While many stressors elicit both kinds of coping strategies,
problem-focused coping is more likely to occur when encountering
stressors we perceive as controllable, while emotion-focused coping is
more likely to predominate when faced with stressors that we believe we
are powerless to change (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980). Clearly,
emotion-focused coping is more effective in dealing with uncontrollable
stressors. For example, if at midnight you are stressing over a 40-page
paper due in the morning that you have not yet started, you are probably
better off recognizing the hopelessness of the situation and doing
something to take your mind off it; taking a problem-focused approach by
trying to accomplish this task would only lead to frustration, anxiety,
and even more stress.
Fortunately, most stressors we encounter can be modified and are, to
varying degrees, controllable. A person who cannot stand her job can
quit and look for work elsewhere; a middle-aged divorcee can find
another potential partner; the freshman who fails an exam can study
harder next time, and a breast lump does not necessarily mean that one
is fated to die of breast cancer.
The desire and ability to predict events, make decisions, and affect
outcomes—that is, to enact control in our lives—is a basic tenet of
human behavior (Everly & Lating, 2002). Albert Bandura (1997) stated
that “the intensity and chronicity of human stress is governed largely
by perceived control over the demands of one’s life” (p. 262). As
cogently described in his statement, our reaction to potential stressors
depends to a large extent on how much control we feel we have over such
things. Perceived control{: data-type=“term”} is our beliefs about
our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes, and it
has major implications for our health and happiness (Infurna & Gerstorf,
2014). Extensive research has demonstrated that perceptions of personal
control are associated with a variety of favorable outcomes, such as
better physical and mental health and greater psychological well-being
(Diehl & Hay, 2010). Greater personal control is also associated with
lower reactivity to stressors in daily life. For example, researchers in
one investigation found that higher levels of perceived control at one
point in time were later associated with lower emotional and physical
reactivity to interpersonal stressors (Neupert, Almeida, & Charles,
2007). Further, a daily diary study with 34 older widows found that
their stress and anxiety levels were significantly reduced on days
during which the widows felt greater perceived control (Ong, Bergeman, &
Bisconti, 2005).
Tip
Learned Helplessness
When we lack a sense of control over the events in our lives,
particularly when those events are threatening, harmful, or noxious,
the psychological consequences can be profound. In one of the better
illustrations of this concept, psychologist Martin Seligman conducted
a series of classic experiments in the 1960s (Seligman & Maier, 1967)
in which dogs were placed in a chamber where they received electric
shocks from which they could not escape. Later, when these dogs were
given the opportunity to escape the shocks by jumping across a
partition, most failed to even try; they seemed to just give up and
passively accept any shocks the experimenters chose to administer. In
comparison, dogs who were previously allowed to escape the shocks
tended to jump the partition and escape the pain
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_14_04_Helpless}
Seligman believed that the dogs who failed to try to escape the later
shocks were demonstrating learned helplessness{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}: They had acquired a belief that they
were powerless to do anything about the noxious stimulation they were
receiving. Seligman also believed that the passivity and lack of
initiative these dogs demonstrated was similar to that observed in
human depression. Therefore, Seligman speculated that acquiring a
sense of learned helplessness might be an important cause of
depression in humans: Humans who experience negative life events that
they believe they are unable to control may become helpless. As a
result, they give up trying to control or change the situation and
some may become depressed and show lack of initiative in future
situations in which they can control the outcomes (Seligman, Maier, &
Geer, 1968).
Seligman and colleagues later reformulated the original learned
helplessness model of depression (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale,
1978). In their reformulation, they emphasized attributions (i.e., a
mental explanation for why something occurred) that lead to the
perception that one lacks control over negative outcomes are
important in fostering a sense of learned helplessness. For example,
suppose a coworker shows up late to work; your belief as to what
caused the coworker’s tardiness would be an attribution (e.g., too
much traffic, slept too late, or just doesn’t care about being on
time).
The reformulated version of Seligman’s study holds that the
attributions made for negative life events contribute to depression.
Consider the example of a student who performs poorly on a midterm
exam. This model suggests that the student will make three kinds of
attributions for this outcome: internal vs. external (believing the
outcome was caused by his own personal inadequacies or by
environmental factors), stable vs. unstable (believing the cause can
be changed or is permanent), and global vs. specific (believing the
outcome is a sign of inadequacy in most everything versus just this
area). Assume that the student makes an internal (“I’m just not
smart”), stable (“Nothing can be done to change the fact that I’m not
smart”) and global (“This is another example of how lousy I am at
everything”) attribution for the poor performance. The reformulated
theory predicts that the student would perceive a lack of control
over this stressful event and thus be especially prone to developing
depression. Indeed, research has demonstrated that people who have a
tendency to make internal, global, and stable attributions for bad
outcomes tend to develop symptoms of depression when faced with
negative life experiences (Peterson & Seligman, 1984).
Seligman’s learned helplessness model has emerged over the years as a
leading theoretical explanation for the onset of major depressive
disorder. When you study psychological disorders, you will learn more
about the latest reformulation of this model—now called hopelessness
theory.
People who report higher levels of perceived control view their health
as controllable, thereby making it more likely that they will better
manage their health and engage in behaviors conducive to good health
(Bandura, 2004). Not surprisingly, greater perceived control has been
linked to lower risk of physical health problems, including declines in
physical functioning (Infurna, Gerstorf, Ram, Schupp, & Wagner, 2011),
heart attacks (Rosengren et al., 2004), and both cardiovascular disease
incidence (Stürmer, Hasselbach, & Amelang, 2006) and mortality from
cardiac disease (Surtees et al., 2010). In addition, longitudinal
studies of British civil servants have found that those in low-status
jobs (e.g., clerical and office support staff) in which the degree of
control over the job is minimal are considerably more likely to develop
heart disease than those with high-status jobs or considerable control
over their jobs (Marmot, Bosma, Hemingway, & Stansfeld, 1997).
The link between perceived control and health may provide an explanation
for the frequently observed relationship between social class and health
outcomes (Kraus, Piff, Mendoza-Denton, Rheinschmidt, & Keltner, 2012).
In general, research has found that more affluent individuals experience
better health mainly because they tend to believe that they can
personally control and manage their reactions to life’s stressors
(Johnson & Krueger, 2006). Perhaps buoyed by the perceived level of
control, individuals of higher social class may be prone to
overestimating the degree of influence they have over particular
outcomes. For example, those of higher social class tend to believe that
their votes have greater sway on election outcomes than do those of
lower social class, which may explain higher rates of voting in more
affluent communities (Krosnick, 1990). Other research has found that a
sense of perceived control can protect less affluent individuals from
poorer health, depression, and reduced life-satisfaction—all of which
tend to accompany lower social standing (Lachman & Weaver, 1998).
Taken together, findings from these and many other studies clearly
suggest that perceptions of control and coping abilities are important
in managing and coping with the stressors we encounter throughout life.
The need to form and maintain strong, stable relationships with others
is a powerful, pervasive, and fundamental human motive (Baumeister &
Leary, 1995). Building strong interpersonal relationships with others
helps us establish a network of close, caring individuals who can
provide social support in times of distress, sorrow, and fear. Social
support{: data-type=“term”} can be thought of as the soothing impact
of friends, family, and acquaintances (Baron & Kerr, 2003). Social
support can take many forms, including advice, guidance, encouragement,
acceptance, emotional comfort, and tangible assistance (such as
financial help). Thus, other people can be very comforting to us when we
are faced with a wide range of life stressors, and they can be extremely
helpful in our efforts to manage these challenges. Even in nonhuman
animals, species mates can offer social support during times of stress.
For example, elephants seem to be able to sense when other elephants are
stressed and will often comfort them with physical contact—such as a
trunk touch—or an empathetic vocal response (Krumboltz, 2014).
Scientific interest in the importance of social support first emerged in
the 1970s when health researchers developed an interest in the health
consequences of being socially integrated (Stroebe & Stroebe, 1996).
Interest was further fueled by longitudinal studies showing that social
connectedness reduced mortality. In one classic study, nearly 7,000
Alameda County, California, residents were followed over 9 years. Those
who had previously indicated that they lacked social and community ties
were more likely to die during the follow-up period than those with more
extensive social networks. Compared to those with the most social
contacts, isolated men and women were, respectively, 2.3 and 2.8 times
more likely to die. These trends persisted even after controlling for a
variety of health-related variables, such as smoking, alcohol
consumption, self-reported health at the beginning of the study, and
physical activity (Berkman & Syme, 1979).
Since the time of that study, social support has emerged as one of the
well-documented psychosocial factors affecting health outcomes (Uchino,
2009). A statistical review of 148 studies conducted between 1982 and
2007 involving over 300,000 participants concluded that individuals with
stronger social relationships have a 50% greater likelihood of survival
compared to those with weak or insufficient social relationships
(Holt-Lunstad, Smith, & Layton, 2010). According to the researchers, the
magnitude of the effect of social support observed in this study is
comparable with quitting smoking and exceeded many well-known risk
factors for mortality, such as obesity and physical inactivity
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_14_04_SocialSupport}
A number of large-scale studies have found that individuals with low
levels of social support are at greater risk of mortality, especially
from cardiovascular disorders (Brummett et al., 2001). Further, higher
levels of social supported have been linked to better survival rates
following breast cancer (Falagas et al., 2007) and infectious diseases,
especially HIV infection (Lee & Rotheram-Borus, 2001). In fact, a person
with high levels of social support is less likely to contract a common
cold. In one study, 334 participants completed questionnaires assessing
their sociability; these individuals were subsequently exposed to a
virus that causes a common cold and monitored for several weeks to see
who became ill. Results showed that increased sociability was linearly
associated with a decreased probability of developing a cold (Cohen,
Doyle, Turner, Alper, & Skoner, 2003).
For many of us, friends are a vital source of social support. But what
if you found yourself in a situation in which you lacked friends or
companions? For example, suppose a popular high school student attends a
far-away college, does not know anyone, and has trouble making friends
and meaningful connections with others during the first semester. What
can be done? If real life social support is lacking, access to distant
friends via social media may help compensate. In a study of college
freshmen, those with few face-to-face friends on campus but who
communicated electronically with distant friends were less distressed
that those who did not (Raney & Troop-Gordon, 2012). Also, for some
people, our families—especially our parents—are a major source of social
support.
Social support appears to work by boosting the immune system, especially
among people who are experiencing stress (Uchino, Vaughn, Carlisle, &
Birmingham, 2012). In a pioneering study, spouses of cancer patients who
reported high levels of social support showed indications of better
immune functioning on two out of three immune functioning measures,
compared to spouses who were below the median on reported social support
(Baron, Cutrona, Hicklin, Russell, & Lubaroff, 1990). Studies of other
populations have produced similar results, including those of spousal
caregivers of dementia sufferers, medical students, elderly adults, and
cancer patients (Cohen & Herbert, 1996; Kiecolt-Glaser, McGuire, Robles,
& Glaser, 2002).
In addition, social support has been shown to reduce blood pressure for
people performing stressful tasks, such as giving a speech or performing
mental arithmetic (Lepore, 1998). In these kinds of studies,
participants are usually asked to perform a stressful task either alone,
with a stranger present (who may be either supportive or unsupportive),
or with a friend present. Those tested with a friend present generally
exhibit lower blood pressure than those tested alone or with a stranger
(Fontana, Diegnan, Villeneuve, & Lepore, 1999). In one study, 112 female
participants who performed stressful mental arithmetic exhibited lower
blood pressure when they received support from a friend rather than a
stranger, but only if the friend was a male (Phillips, Gallagher, &
Carroll, 2009). Although these findings are somewhat difficult to
interpret, the authors mention that it is possible that females feel
less supported and more evaluated by other females, particularly females
whose opinions they value.
Taken together, the findings above suggest one of the reasons social
support is connected to favorable health outcomes is because it has
several beneficial physiological effects in stressful situations.
However, it is also important to consider the possibility that social
support may lead to better health behaviors, such as a healthy diet,
exercising, smoking cessation, and cooperation with medical regimens
(Uchino, 2009).
Tip
Coping with Prejudice and Discrimination
While having social support is quite beneficial, being the recipient
of prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behaviors is associated
with a number of negative outcomes. In their literature review,
Brondolo, Brady, Pencille, Beatty, and Contrada (2009) describe how
racial prejudicepastehere and
discriminationpastehere serve as
unique, significant stressors for those who are the targets of such
attitudes and behavior. Being the target of racism is associated with
increased rates of depression, lowered self-esteem, hypertension, and
cardiovascular disease.
Given the complex and pervasive nature of racism as a stressor,
Brondolo et al. (2009) point out the importance of coping with this
specific stressor. Their review is aimed at determining which coping
strategies are most effective at offsetting negative health outcomes
associated with racism-related stress. The authors examine the
effectiveness of three coping strategies: focusing on racial identity
to handle race-related stress, anger{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} expression/suppression, and seeking social support.
You’ve learned a bit about social support, so we’ll focus the
remainder of this discussion on the potential coping strategies of
focusing on racial identity and anger expression/suppression.
Focusing on racial identity refers to the process by which a person
comes to feel as if he belongs to a given racial group; this may
increase a sense of pride associated with group membership. Brondolo
et al. (2009) suggest that a strong sense of racial identity might
help an individual who is the target of racism differentiate between
prejudicial attitudes/behaviors that are directed toward his group as
a whole rather than at him as a person. Furthermore, the sense of
belonging to his group might alleviate the distress of being
ostracized by others. However, the research literature on the
effectiveness of this technique has produced mixed results.
Anger expression/suppression refers to the options available as a
function of the anger evoked by racial prejudice and discrimination.
Put simply, a target of racist attitudes and behaviors can act upon
her anger or suppress her anger. As discussed by Brondolo et
al. (2009), there has been very little research on the effectiveness
of either approach; the results are quite mixed with some showing
anger expression and others showing anger suppression as the
healthier option.
In the end, racism-related stress is a complex issue and each of the
coping strategies discussed here has strengths and weaknesses.
Brondolo et al. (2009) argue that it is imperative that additional
research be conducted to ascertain the most effective strategies for
coping with the negative outcomes that are experienced by the targets
of racism.
Beyond having a sense of control and establishing social support
networks, there are numerous other means by which we can manage stress
([link]). A common technique people use
to combat stress is exercisepastehere
(Salmon, 2001). It is well-established that exercise, both of long
(aerobic) and short (anaerobic) duration, is beneficial for both
physical and mental health (Everly & Lating, 2002). There is
considerable evidence that physically fit individuals are more resistant
to the adverse effects of stress and recover more quickly from stress
than less physically fit individuals (Cotton, 1990). In a study of more
than 500 Swiss police officers and emergency service personnel,
increased physical fitness was associated with reduced stress, and
regular exercise was reported to protect against stress-related health
problems (Gerber, Kellman, Hartman, & Pühse, 2010).
{: #CNX_Psych_14_04_StressRed}
One reason exercise may be beneficial is because it might buffer some of
the deleterious physiological mechanisms of stress. One study found rats
that exercised for six weeks showed a decrease in
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responsiveness to mild stressors (Campeau
et al., 2010). In high-stress humans, exercise has been shown to prevent
telomere shortening, which may explain the common observation of a
youthful appearance among those who exercise regularly (Puterman et al.,
2010). Further, exercise in later adulthood appears to minimize the
detrimental effects of stress on the hippocampus and memory (Head,
Singh, & Bugg, 2012). Among cancer survivors, exercise has been shown to
reduce anxiety (Speck, Courneya, Masse, Duval, & Schmitz, 2010) and
depressive symptoms (Craft, VanIterson, Helenowski, Rademaker, &
Courneya, 2012). Clearly, exercise is a highly effective tool for
regulating stress.
In the 1970s, Herbert Benson, a cardiologist, developed a stress
reduction method called the relaxation response technique{:
data-type=“term”} (Greenberg, 2006). The relaxation response technique
combines relaxation with transcendental meditation{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}, and consists of four components (Stein,
2001):
sitting upright on a comfortable chair with feet on the ground and
body in a relaxed position,
a quiet environment with eyes closed,
repeating a word or a phrase—a mantra—to oneself, such as “alert
mind, calm body,”
passively allowing the mind to focus on pleasant thoughts, such as
nature or the warmth of your blood nourishing your body. {: type=“1”}
The relaxation response approach is conceptualized as a general approach
to stress reduction that reduces sympathetic arousal, and it has been
used effectively to treat people with high blood pressure (Benson &
Proctor, 1994).
Another technique to combat stress, biofeedback{:
data-type=“term”}, was developed by Gary Schwartz at Harvard University
in the early 1970s. Biofeedback is a technique that uses electronic
equipment to accurately measure a person’s neuromuscular and autonomic
activity—feedback is provided in the form of visual or auditory signals.
The main assumption of this approach is that providing somebody
biofeedback will enable the individual to develop strategies that help
gain some level of voluntary control over what are normally involuntary
bodily processes (Schwartz & Schwartz, 1995). A number of different
bodily measures have been used in biofeedback research, including facial
muscle movement, brain activity, and skin temperature, and it has been
applied successfully with individuals experiencing tension headaches,
high blood pressure, asthma, and phobias (Stein, 2001).
When faced with stress, people must attempt to manage or cope with it.
In general, there are two basic forms of coping: problem-focused coping
and emotion-focused coping. Those who use problem-focused coping
strategies tend to cope better with stress because these strategies
address the source of stress rather than the resulting symptoms. To a
large extent, perceived control greatly impacts reaction to stressors
and is associated with greater physical and mental well-being. Social
support has been demonstrated to be a highly effective buffer against
the adverse effects of stress. Extensive research has shown that social
support has beneficial physiological effects for people, and it seems to
influence immune functioning. However, the beneficial effects of social
support may be related to its influence on promoting healthy behaviors.
Question
Emotion-focused coping would likely be a better method than
problem-focused coping for dealing with which of the following
stressors?
terminal cancer
poor grades in school
unemployment
divorce {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Studies of British civil servants have found that those in the
lowest status jobs are much more likely to develop heart disease
than those who have high status jobs. These findings attest to the
importance of ________ in dealing with stress.
biofeedback
social support
perceived control
emotion-focused coping {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Relative to those with low levels of social support, individuals
with high levels of social support ________.
are more likely to develop asthma
tend to have less perceived control
are more likely to develop cardiovascular disorders
tend to tolerate stress well {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
The concept of learned helplessness was formulated by Seligman to
explain the ________.
inability of dogs to attempt to escape avoidable shocks after
having received inescapable shocks
failure of dogs to learn to from prior mistakes
ability of dogs to learn to help other dogs escape situations
in which they are receiving uncontrollable shocks
inability of dogs to learn to help other dogs escape situations
in which they are receiving uncontrollable electric shocks {:
type=“a”}
Although problem-focused coping seems to be a more effective
strategy when dealing with stressors, do you think there are any
kinds of stressful situations in which emotion-focused coping
might be a better strategy?
Emotion-focused coping would likely be a better coping strategy in
situations in which a stressor is uncontrollable, or in which
nothing could otherwise be done about it, such as a fatal illness.
Describe how social support can affect health both directly and
indirectly.
Social support seems to have a direct effect on immune system
functioning. Social support can affect health indirectly by
influencing health-related behaviors, such as exercise and eating
properly.
Try to think of an example in which you coped with a particular
stressor by using problem-focused coping. What was the stressor?
What did your problem-focused efforts involve? Were they
effective?
stress-reduction technique using electronic equipment to measure a
person’s involuntary (neuromuscular and autonomic) activity and
provide feedback to help the person gain a level of voluntary
control over these processes ^
soothing and often beneficial support of others; can take
different forms, such as advice, guidance, encouragement,
acceptance, emotional comfort, and tangible assistance
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Define and
discuss happiness, including its determinants * Describe the field
of positive psychology and identify the kinds of problems it
addresses * Explain the meaning of positive affect and discuss its
importance in health outcomes * Describe the concept of flow and its
relationship to happiness and fulfillment
Although the study of stresspastehere and
how it affects us physically and psychologically is fascinating, it
is—admittedly—somewhat of a grim topic. Psychology is also interested in
the study of a more upbeat and encouraging approach to human affairs—the
quest for happiness.
America’s founders declared that its citizens have an unalienable right
to pursue happiness. But what is happiness? When asked to define the
term, people emphasize different aspects of this elusive state. Indeed,
happiness is somewhat ambiguous and can be defined from different
perspectives (Martin, 2012). Some people, especially those who are
highly committed to their religious faith, view happiness in ways that
emphasize virtuosity, reverence, and enlightened spirituality. Others
see happiness as primarily contentment—the inner peace and joy that come
from deep satisfaction with one’s surroundings, relationships with
others, accomplishments, and oneself. Still others view happiness mainly
as pleasurable engagement with their personal environment—having a
career and hobbies that are engaging, meaningful, rewarding, and
exciting. These differences, of course, are merely differences in
emphasis. Most people would probably agree that each of these views, in
some respects, captures the essence of happiness.
Some psychologists have suggested that happiness consists of three
distinct elements: the pleasant life, the good life, and the meaningful
life, as shown in [link] (Seligman,
2002; Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). The pleasant life is
realized through the attainment of day-to-day pleasures that add fun,
joy, and excitement to our lives. For example, evening walks along the
beach and a fulfilling sex life can enhance our daily pleasure and
contribute to the pleasant life. The good life is achieved through
identifying our unique skills and abilities and engaging these talents
to enrich our lives; those who achieve the good life often find
themselves absorbed in their work or their recreational pursuits. The
meaningful life involves a deep sense of fulfillment that comes from
using our talents in the service of the greater good: in ways that
benefit the lives of others or that make the world a better place. In
general, the happiest people tend to be those who pursue the full
life—they orient their pursuits toward all three elements (Seligman et
al., 2005).
{: #CNX_Psych_14_05_Happiness}
For practical purposes, a precise definition of happiness{:
data-type=“term”} might incorporate each of these elements: an enduring
state of mind consisting of joy, contentment, and other positive
emotions, plus the sense that one’s life has meaning and value
(Lyubomirsky, 2001). The definition implies that happiness is a
long-term state—what is often characterized as subjective
well-being—rather than merely a transient positive mood we all
experience from time to time. It is this enduring happiness that has
captured the interests of psychologists and other social scientists.
The study of happiness has grown dramatically in the last three decades
(Diener, 2013). One of the most basic questions that happiness
investigators routinely examine is this: How happy are people in
general? The average person in the world tends to be relatively happy
and tends to indicate experiencing more positive feelings than negative
feelings (Diener, Ng, Harter, & Arora, 2010). When asked to evaluate
their current lives on a scale ranging from 0 to 10 (with 0 representing
“worst possible life” and 10 representing “best possible life”), people
in more than 150 countries surveyed from 2010–2012 reported an average
score of 5.2. People who live in North America, Australia, and New
Zealand reported the highest average score at 7.1, whereas those living
Sub-Saharan Africa reported the lowest average score at 4.6 (Helliwell,
Layard, & Sachs, 2013). Worldwide, the five happiest countries are
Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Sweden; the United
States is ranked 17th happiest ([link])
(Helliwell et al., 2013).
{: #CNX_Psych_14_05_Denmark}
Several years ago, a Gallup survey of more than 1,000 U.S. adults found
that 52% reported that they were “very happy.” In addition, more than 8
in 10 indicated that they were “very satisfied” with their lives
(Carroll, 2007). However, a recent poll of 2,345 U.S. adults
surprisingly revealed that only one-third reported they are “very
happy.” The poll also revealed that the happiness levels of certain
groups, including minorities, recent college graduates, and the
disabled, have trended downward in recent years (Gregoire, 2013).
Although it is difficult to explain this apparent decline in happiness,
it may be connected to the challenging economic conditions the United
States has endured over the last several years. Of course, this
presumption would imply that happiness is closely tied to one’s
finances. But, is it? This question brings us to the next important
issue: What factors influence happiness?
What really makes people happy? What factors contribute to sustained joy
and contentment? Is it money, attractiveness, material possessions, a
rewarding occupation, a satisfying relationship? Extensive research over
the years has examined this question. One finding is that age is related
to happiness: Life satisfaction usually increases the older people get,
but there do not appear to be gender differences in happiness (Diener,
Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999). Although it is important to point out that
much of this work has been correlational, many of the key findings (some
of which may surprise you) are summarized below.
Family and other social relationships appear to be key factors
correlated with happiness. Studies show that married people report being
happier than those who are single, divorced, or widowed (Diener et al.,
1999). Happy individuals also report that their marriages are fulfilling
(Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). In fact, some have suggested that
satisfaction with marriage and family life is the strongest predictor of
happiness (Myers, 2000). Happy people tend to have more friends, more
high-quality social relationships, and stronger social support networks
than less happy people (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). Happy people also
have a high frequency of contact with friends (Pinquart & Sörensen,
2000).
Can money buy happiness? In general, extensive research suggests that
the answer is yes, but with several caveats. While a nation’s per capita
gross domestic product (GDP) is associated with happiness levels
(Helliwell et al., 2013), changes in GDP (which is a less certain index
of household income) bear little relationship to changes in happiness
(Diener, Tay, & Oishi, 2013). On the whole, residents of affluent
countries tend to be happier than residents of poor countries; within
countries, wealthy individuals are happier than poor individuals, but
the association is much weaker (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2002). To the
extent that it leads to increases in purchasing power, increases in
income are associated with increases in happiness (Diener, Oishi, &
Ryan, 2013). However, income within societies appears to correlate with
happiness only up to a point. In a study of over 450,000 U.S. residents
surveyed by the Gallup Organization, Kahneman and Deaton (2010) found
that well-being rises with annual income, but only up to $75,000. The
average increase in reported well-being for people with incomes greater
than $75,000 was null. As implausible as these findings might seem—after
all, higher incomes would enable people to indulge in Hawaiian
vacations, prime seats as sporting events, expensive automobiles, and
expansive new homes—higher incomes may impair people’s ability to savor
and enjoy the small pleasures of life (Kahneman, 2011). Indeed,
researchers in one study found that participants exposed to a subliminal
reminder of wealth spent less time savoring a chocolate candy bar and
exhibited less enjoyment of this experience than did participants who
were not reminded of wealth (Quoidbach, Dunn, Petrides, & Mikolajczak,
2010).
What about education and employment? Happy people, compared to those who
are less happy, are more likely to graduate from college and secure more
meaningful and engaging jobs. Once they obtain a job, they are also more
likely to succeed (Lyubomirsky et al., 2005). While education shows a
positive (but weak) correlation with happiness, intelligence is not
appreciably related to happiness (Diener et al., 1999).
Does religiosity correlate with happiness? In general, the answer is yes
(Hackney & Sanders, 2003). However, the relationship between religiosity
and happiness depends on societal circumstances. Nations and states with
more difficult living conditions (e.g., widespread hunger and low life
expectancy) tend to be more highly religious than societies with more
favorable living conditions. Among those who live in nations with
difficult living conditions, religiosity is associated with greater
well-being; in nations with more favorable living conditions, religious
and nonreligious individuals report similar levels of well-being
(Diener, Tay, & Myers, 2011).
Clearly the living conditions of one’s nation can influence factors
related to happiness. What about the influence of one’s culture? To the
extent that people possess characteristics that are highly valued by
their culture, they tend to be happier (Diener, 2012). For example,
self-esteem is a stronger predictor of life satisfaction in
individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures (Diener,
Diener, & Diener, 1995), and extraverted people tend to be happier in
extraverted cultures than in introverted cultures (Fulmer et al., 2010).
So we’ve identified many factors that exhibit some correlation to
happiness. What factors don’t show a correlation? Researchers have
studied both parenthood and physical attractiveness as potential
contributors to happiness, but no link has been identified. Although
people tend to believe that parenthood is central to a meaningful and
fulfilling life, aggregate findings from a range of countries indicate
that people who do not have children are generally happier than those
who do (Hansen, 2012). And although one’s perceived level of
attractiveness seems to predict happiness, a person’s objective physical
attractiveness is only weakly correlated with her happiness (Diener,
Wolsic, & Fujita, 1995).
An important point should be considered regarding happiness. People are
often poor at affective forecasting: predicting the intensity and
duration of their future emotions (Wilson & Gilbert, 2003). In one
study, nearly all newlywed spouses predicted their marital satisfaction
would remain stable or improve over the following four years; despite
this high level of initial optimism, their marital satisfaction actually
declined during this period (Lavner, Karner, & Bradbury, 2013). In
addition, we are often incorrect when estimating how our long-term
happiness would change for the better or worse in response to certain
life events. For example, it is easy for many of us to imagine how
euphoric we would feel if we won the lottery, were asked on a date by an
attractive celebrity, or were offered our dream job. It is also easy to
understand how long-suffering fans of the Chicago Cubs baseball team,
which has not won a World Series championship since 1908, think they
would feel permanently elated if their team would finally win another
World Series. Likewise, it easy to predict that we would feel
permanently miserable if we suffered a crippling accident or if a
romantic relationship ended.
However, something similar to sensory adaptation often occurs when
people experience emotional reactions to life events. In much the same
way our senses adapt to changes in stimulation (e.g., our eyes adapting
to bright light after walking out of the darkness of a movie theater
into the bright afternoon sun), we eventually adapt to changing
emotional circumstances in our lives (Brickman & Campbell, 1971; Helson,
1964). When an event that provokes positive or negative emotions occurs,
at first we tend to experience its emotional impact at full intensity.
We feel a burst of pleasure following such things as a marriage
proposal, birth of a child, acceptance to law school, an inheritance,
and the like; as you might imagine, lottery winners experience a surge
of happiness after hitting the jackpot (Lutter, 2007). Likewise, we
experience a surge of misery following widowhood, a divorce, or a layoff
from work. In the long run, however, we eventually adjust to the
emotional new normal; the emotional impact of the event tends to erode,
and we eventually revert to our original baseline happiness levels.
Thus, what was at first a thrilling lottery windfall or World Series
championship eventually loses its luster and becomes the status quo
([link]). Indeed, dramatic life events have
much less long-lasting impact on happiness than might be expected
(Brickman, Coats, & Janoff-Bulman, 1978).
{: #CNX_Psych_14_05_Cubs}
Recently, some have raised questions concerning the extent to which
important life events can permanently alter people’s happiness set
points (Diener, Lucas, & Scollon, 2006). Evidence from a number of
investigations suggests that, in some circumstances, happiness levels do
not revert to their original positions. For example, although people
generally tend to adapt to marriage so that it no longer makes them
happier or unhappier than before, they often do not fully adapt to
unemployment or severe disabilities (Diener, 2012).
[link], which is based on
longitudinal data from a sample of over 3,000 German respondents, shows
life satisfaction scores several years before, during, and after various
life events, and it illustrates how people adapt (or fail to adapt) to
these events. German respondents did not get lasting emotional boosts
from marriage; instead, they reported brief increases in happiness,
followed by quick adaptation. In contrast, widows and those who had been
laid off experienced sizeable decreases in happiness that appeared to
result in long-term changes in life satisfaction (Diener et al., 2006).
Further, longitudinal data from the same sample showed that happiness
levels changed significantly over time for nearly a quarter of
respondents, with 9% showing major changes (Fujita & Diener, 2005).
Thus, long-term happiness levels can and do change for some people.
Some recent findings about happiness provide an optimistic picture,
suggesting that real changes in happiness are possible. For example,
thoughtfully developed well-being interventions designed to augment
people’s baseline levels of happiness may increase happiness in ways
that are permanent and long-lasting, not just temporary. These changes
in happiness may be targeted at individual, organizational, and societal
levels (Diener et al., 2006). Researchers in one study found that a
series of happiness interventions involving such exercises as writing
down three good things that occurred each day led to increases in
happiness that lasted over six months (Seligman et al., 2005).
Measuring happinesspastehere and
well-being at the societal level over time may assist policy makers in
determining if people are generally happy or miserable, as well as when
and why they might feel the way they do. Studies show that average
national happiness scores (over time and across countries) relate
strongly to six key variables: per capita gross domestic product (GDP,
which reflects a nation’s economic standard of living), social support,
freedom to make important life choices, healthy life expectancy, freedom
from perceived corruption in government and business, and generosity
(Helliwell et al., 2013). Investigating why people are happy or unhappy
might help policymakers develop programs that increase happiness and
well-being within a society (Diener et al., 2006). Resolutions about
contemporary political and social issues that are frequent topics of
debate—such as poverty, taxation, affordable health care and housing,
clean air and water, and income inequality—might be best considered with
people’s happiness in mind.
In 1998, Seligmanpastehere (the same
person who conducted the learned helplessness experiments mentioned
earlier), who was then president of the American Psychological
Association, urged psychologists to focus more on understanding how to
build human strength and psychological well-being. In deliberately
setting out to create a new direction and new orientation for
psychology, Seligman helped establish a growing movement and field of
research called positive psychology (Compton, 2005). In a very general
sense, positive psychology{: data-type=“term”} can be thought of
as the science of happiness; it is an area of study that seeks to
identify and promote those qualities that lead to greater fulfillment in
our lives. This field looks at people’s strengths and what helps
individuals to lead happy, contented lives, and it moves away from
focusing on people’s pathology, faults, and problems. According to
Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000), positive psychology,
at the subjective level is about valued subjective experiences:
well-being, contentment, and satisfaction (in the past); hope and
optimism (for the future); and… happiness (in the present). At the
individual level, it is about positive individual traits: the
capacity for love and vocation, courage, interpersonal skill,
aesthetic sensibility, perseverance, forgiveness, originality, future
mindedness, spirituality, high talent, and wisdom. (p. 5)
Some of the topics studied by positive psychologists include altruism
and empathy, creativity, forgiveness and compassion, the importance of
positive emotions, enhancement of immune system functioning, savoring
the fleeting moments of life, and strengthening virtues as a way to
increase authentic happiness (Compton, 2005). Recent efforts in the
field of positive psychology have focused on extending its principles
toward peace and well-being at the level of the global community. In a
war-torn world in which conflict, hatred, and distrust are common, such
an extended “positive peace psychology” could have important
implications for understanding how to overcome oppression and work
toward global peace (Cohrs, Christie, White, & Das, 2013).
Tip
The Center for Investigating Healthy Minds
On the campus of the University of Wisconsin–Madison, the Center for
Investigating Healthy Minds at the Waisman Center conducts rigorous
scientific research on healthy aspects of the mind, such as kindness,
forgiveness, compassion, and mindfulness. Established in 2008 and led
by renowned neuroscientist Dr. Richard J. Davidson, the Center
examines a wide range of ideas, including such things as a kindness
curriculum in schools, neural correlates of prosocial behavior,
psychological effects of Tai Chi training, digital games to foster
prosocial behavior in children, and the effectiveness of yoga and
breathing exercises in reducing symptoms of post-traumatic stress
disorder.
According to its website, the Center was founded after Dr. Davidson
was challenged by His Holiness, the 14th Dalai Lama, “to apply the
rigors of science to study positive qualities of mind” (Center for
Investigating Health Minds, 2013). The Center continues to conduct
scientific research with the aim of developing mental health training
approaches that help people to live happier, healthier lives).
Taking a cue from positive psychology, extensive research over the last
10-15 years has examined the importance of positive psychological
attributes in physical well-being. Qualities that help promote
psychological well-being (e.g., having meaning and purpose in life, a
sense of autonomy, positive emotions, and satisfaction with life) are
linked with a range of favorable health outcomes (especially improved
cardiovascular health) mainly through their relationships with
biological functions and health behaviors (such as diet, physical
activity, and sleep quality) (Boehm & Kubzansky, 2012). The quality that
has received attention is positive affect{: data-type=“term”},
which refers to pleasurable engagement with the environment, such as
happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness, and excitement (Watson, Clark, &
Tellegen, 1988). The characteristics of positive affect, as with
negative affect (discussed earlier), can be brief, long-lasting, or
trait-like (Pressman & Cohen, 2005). Independent of age, gender, and
income, positive affect is associated with greater social connectedness,
emotional and practical support, adaptive coping efforts, and lower
depression; it is also associated with longevity and favorable
physiological functioning (Steptoe, O’Donnell, Marmot, & Wardle, 2008).
Positive affect also serves as a protective factor against heart
disease. In a 10-year study of Nova Scotians, the rate of heart disease
was 22% lower for each one-point increase on the measure of positive
affect, from 1 (no positive affect expressed) to 5 (extreme positive
affect) (Davidson, Mostofsky, & Whang, 2010). In terms of our health,
the expression, “don’t worry, be happy” is helpful advice indeed. There
has also been much work suggesting that optimism{:
data-type=“term”}—the general tendency to look on the bright side of
things—is also a significant predictor of positive health outcomes.
Although positive affect and optimism are related in some ways, they are
not the same (Pressman & Cohen, 2005). Whereas positive affect is mostly
concerned with positive feeling states, optimism has been regarded as a
generalized tendency to expect that good things will happen (Chang,
2001). It has also been conceptualized as a tendency to view life’s
stressors and difficulties as temporary and external to oneself
(Peterson & Steen, 2002). Numerous studies over the years have
consistently shown that optimism is linked to longevity, healthier
behaviors, fewer postsurgical complications, better immune functioning
among men with prostate cancer, and better treatment adherence
(Rasmussen & Wallio, 2008). Further, optimistic people report fewer
physical symptoms, less pain, better physical functioning, and are less
likely to be rehospitalized following heart surgery (Rasmussen, Scheier,
& Greenhouse, 2009).
Another factor that seems to be important in fostering a deep sense of
well-being is the ability to derive flow from the things we do in life.
Flow{: data-type=“term”} is described as a particular experience
that is so engaging and engrossing that it becomes worth doing for its
own sake (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). It is usually related to creative
endeavors and leisure activities, but it can also be experienced by
workers who like their jobs or students who love studying
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Many of us instantly recognize the notion of
flow. In fact, the term derived from respondents’ spontaneous use of the
term when asked to describe how it felt when what they were doing was
going well. When people experience flow, they become involved in an
activity to the point where they feel they lose themselves in the
activity. They effortlessly maintain their concentration and focus, they
feel as though they have complete control of their actions, and time
seems to pass more quickly than usual (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). Flow is
considered a pleasurable experience, and it typically occurs when people
are engaged in challenging activities that require skills and knowledge
they know they possess. For example, people would be more likely report
flow experiences in relation to their work or hobbies than in relation
to eating. When asked the question, “Do you ever get involved in
something so deeply that nothing else seems to matter, and you lose
track of time?” about 20% of Americans and Europeans report having these
flow-like experiences regularly (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997).
Although wealth and material possessions are nice to have, the notion of
flow suggests that neither are prerequisites for a happy and fulfilling
life. Finding an activity that you are truly enthusiastic about,
something so absorbing that doing it is reward itself (whether it be
playing tennis, studying Arabic, writing children’s novels, or cooking
lavish meals) is perhaps the real key. According to Csikszentmihalyi
(1999), creating conditions that make flow experiences possible should
be a top social and political priority. How might this goal be achieved?
How might flow be promoted in school systems? In the workplace? What
potential benefits might be accrued from such efforts?
In an ideal world, scientific research endeavors should inform us on how
to bring about a better world for all people. The field of positive
psychology promises to be instrumental in helping us understand what
truly builds hope, optimism, happiness, healthy relationships, flow, and
genuine personal fulfillment.
Happiness is conceptualized as an enduring state of mind that consists
of the capacity to experience pleasure in daily life, as well as the
ability to engage one’s skills and talents to enrich one’s life and the
lives of others. Although people around the world generally report that
they are happy, there are differences in average happiness levels across
nations. Although people have a tendency to overestimate the extent to
which their happiness set points would change for the better or for the
worse following certain life events, researchers have identified a
number of factors that are consistently related to happiness. In recent
years, positive psychology has emerged as an area of study seeking to
identify and promote qualities that lead to greater happiness and
fulfillment in our lives. These components include positive affect,
optimism, and flow.
Question
Which of the following is not one of the presumed components of
happiness?
using our talents to help improve the lives of others
learning new skills
regular pleasurable experiences
identifying and using our talents to enrich our lives {:
type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Researchers have identified a number of factors that are related
to happiness. Which of the following is not one of them?
Carson enjoys writing mystery novels, and has even managed to
publish some of his work. When he’s writing, Carson becomes
extremely focused on his work; in fact, he becomes so absorbed
that that he often loses track of time, often staying up well past
3 a.m. Carson’s experience best illustrates the concept of
________.
In considering the three dimensions of happiness discussed in this
section (the pleasant life, the good life, and the meaningful
life), what are some steps you could take to improve your personal
level of happiness?
Answers will vary, but may include mentioning things that boost
positive emotions (the pleasant life), developing and using skills
and talents (the good life), and using one’s talents to help
others (the meaningful life).
The day before the drawing of a $300 million Powerball lottery,
you notice that a line of people waiting to buy their Powerball
tickets is stretched outside the door of a nearby convenience
store. Based on what you’ve learned, provide some perspective on
why these people are doing this, and what would likely happen if
one of these individuals happened to pick the right numbers.
These individuals’ affective forecasting is such that they believe
their lives would be immeasurably happier if they won the lottery.
Although winning would certainly lead to a surge of euphoria in
the short term, long term they would likely adjust, and their
happiness levels would likely return to normal. This fact is lost
on most people, especially when considering the intensity and
duration of their emotions following a major life event.
Think of an activity you participate in that you find engaging and
absorbing. For example, this might be something like playing video
games, reading, or a hobby. What are your experiences typically
like while engaging in this activity? Do your experiences conform
to the notion of flow? If so, how? Do you think these experiences
have enriched your life? Why or why not?
state or a trait that involves pleasurable engagement with the
environment, the dimensions of which include happiness, joy,
enthusiasm, alertness, and excitement ^
scientific area of study seeking to identify and promote those
qualities that lead to happy, fulfilled, and contented lives
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You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
nature and symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and
autism spectrum disorder * Discuss the prevalence and factors that
contribute to the development of these disorders
Most of the disorders we have discussed so far are typically diagnosed
in adulthood, although they can and sometimes do occur during childhood.
However, there are a group of conditions that, when present, are
diagnosed early in childhood, often before the time a child enters
school. These conditions are listed in the DSM-5 as neurodevelopmental
disorders{: data-type=“term”}, and they involve developmental
problems in personal, social, academic, and intellectual functioning
(APA, 2013). In this section, we will discuss two such disorders:
attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder and autism.
Diego is always active, from the time he wakes up in the morning until
the time he goes to bed at night. His mother reports that he came out
the womb kicking and screaming, and he has not stopped moving since. He
has a sweet disposition, but always seems to be in trouble with his
teachers, parents, and after-school program counselors. He seems to
accidently break things; he lost his jacket three times last winter, and
he never seems to sit still. His teachers believe he is a smart child,
but he never finishes anything he starts and is so impulsive that he
does not seem to learn much in school.
Diego likely has attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD){:
data-type=“term”}. The symptoms of this disorder were first described by
Hans Hoffman in the 1920s. While taking care of his son while his wife
was in the hospital giving birth to a second child, Hoffman noticed that
the boy had trouble concentrating on his homework, had a short attention
span, and had to repeatedly go over easy homework to learn the material
(Jellinek & Herzog, 1999). Later, it was discovered that many
hyperactive children—those who are fidgety, restless, socially
disruptive, and have trouble with impulse control—also display short
attention spans, problems with concentration, and distractibility. By
the 1970s, it had become clear that many children who display attention
problems often also exhibit signs of hyperactivity. In recognition of
such findings, the DSM-III (published in 1980) included a new disorder:
attention deficit disorder with and without hyperactivity, now known as
attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
A child with ADHD shows a constant pattern of inattention and/or
hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal
functioning (APA, 2013). Some of the signs of inattention include great
difficulty with and avoidance of tasks that require sustained attention
(such as conversations or reading), failure to follow instructions
(often resulting in failure to complete school work and other duties),
disorganization (difficulty keeping things in order, poor time
management, sloppy and messy work), lack of attention to detail,
becoming easily distracted, and forgetfulness. Hyperactivity is
characterized by excessive movement, and includes fidgeting or
squirming, leaving one’s seat in situations when remaining seated is
expected, having trouble sitting still (e.g., in a restaurant), running
about and climbing on things, blurting out responses before another
person’s question or statement has been completed, difficulty waiting
one’s turn for something, and interrupting and intruding on others.
Frequently, the hyperactive child comes across as noisy and boisterous.
The child’s behavior is hasty, impulsive, and seems to occur without
much forethought; these characteristics may explain why adolescents and
young adults diagnosed with ADHD receive more traffic tickets and have
more automobile accidents than do others (Thompson, Molina, Pelham, &
Gnagy, 2007).
ADHD occurs in about 5% of children (APA, 2013). On the average, boys
are 3 times more likely to have ADHD than are girls; however, such
findings might reflect the greater propensity of boys to engage in
aggressive and antisocial behavior and thus incur a greater likelihood
of being referred to psychological clinics (Barkley, 2006). Children
with ADHD face severe academic and social challenges. Compared to their
non-ADHD counterparts, children with ADHD have lower grades and
standardized test scores and higher rates of expulsion, grade retention,
and dropping out (Loe & Feldman, 2007). they also are less well-liked
and more often rejected by their peers (Hoza et al., 2005).
Previously, ADHD was thought to fade away by adolescence. However,
longitudinal studies have suggested that ADHD is a chronic problem, one
that can persist into adolescence and adulthood (Barkley, Fischer,
Smallish, & Fletcher, 2002). A recent study found that 29.3% of adults
who had been diagnosed with ADHD decades earlier still showed symptoms
(Barbaresi et al., 2013). Somewhat troubling, this study also reported
that nearly 81% of those whose ADHD persisted into adulthood had
experienced at least one other comorbid disorder, compared to 47% of
those whose ADHD did not persist.
Children diagnosed with ADHD face considerably worse long-term outcomes
than do those children who do not receive such a diagnosis. In one
investigation, 135 adults who had been identified as having ADHD
symptoms in the 1970s were contacted decades later and interviewed
(Klein et al., 2012). Compared to a control sample of 136 participants
who had never been diagnosed with ADHD, those who were diagnosed as
children:
had worse educational attainment (more likely to have dropped out of
high school and less likely to have earned a bachelor’s degree);
had lower socioeconomic status;
held less prestigious occupational positions;
were more likely to be unemployed;
made considerably less in salary;
scored worse on a measure of occupational functioning (indicating,
for example, lower job satisfaction, poorer work relationships, and
more firings);
scored worse on a measure of social functioning (indicating, for
example, fewer friendships and less involvement in social
activities);
were more likely to be divorced; and
were more likely to have non-alcohol-related substance abuse
problems. (Klein et al., 2012)
Longitudinal studies also show that children diagnosed with ADHD are at
higher risk for substance abuse problems. One study reported that
childhood ADHD predicted later drinking problems, daily smoking, and use
of marijuana and other illicit drugs (Molina & Pelham, 2003). The risk
of substance abuse problems appears to be even greater for those with
ADHD who also exhibit antisocial tendencies (Marshal & Molina, 2006).
Family and twin studies indicate that genetics play a significant role
in the development of ADHD. Burt (2009), in a review of 26 studies,
reported that the median rate of concordance for identical twins was .66
(one study reported a rate of .90), whereas the median concordance rate
for fraternal twins was .20. This study also found that the median
concordance rate for unrelated (adoptive) siblings was .09; although
this number is small, it is greater than 0, thus suggesting that the
environment may have at least some influence. Another review of studies
concluded that the heritability of inattention and hyperactivity were
71% and 73%, respectively (Nikolas & Burt, 2010).
The specific genes involved in ADHD are thought to include at least two
that are important in the regulation of the neurotransmitter dopamine
(Gizer, Ficks, & Waldman, 2009), suggesting that dopamine may be
important in ADHD. Indeed, medications used in the treatment of ADHD,
such as methylphenidate (Ritalin) and amphetamine with dextroamphetamine
(Adderall), have stimulant qualities and elevate dopamine activity.
People with ADHD show less dopamine activity in key regions of the
brain, especially those associated with motivation and reward (Volkow et
al., 2009), which provides support to the theory that dopamine deficits
may be a vital factor in the development this disorder (Swanson et al.,
2007).
Brain imaging studies have shown that children with ADHD exhibit
abnormalities in their frontal lobes, an area in which dopamine is in
abundance. Compared to children without ADHD, those with ADHD appear to
have smaller frontal lobe volume, and they show less frontal lobe
activation when performing mental tasks. Recall that one of the
functions of the frontal lobes is to inhibit our behavior. Thus,
abnormalities in this region may go a long way toward explaining the
hyperactive, uncontrolled behavior of ADHD.
By the 1970s, many had become aware of the connection between
nutritional factors and childhood behavior. At the time, much of the
public believed that hyperactivity was caused by sugar and food
additives, such as artificial coloring and flavoring. Undoubtedly, part
of the appeal of this hypothesis was that it provided a simple
explanation of (and treatment for) behavioral problems in children. A
statistical review of 16 studies, however, concluded that sugar
consumption has no effect at all on the behavioral and cognitive
performance of children (Wolraich, Wilson, & White, 1995). Additionally,
although food additives have been shown to increase hyperactivity in
non-ADHD children, the effect is rather small (McCann et al., 2007).
Numerous studies, however, have shown a significant relationship between
exposure to nicotine in cigarette smoke during the prenatal period and
ADHD (Linnet et al., 2003). Maternal smoking during pregnancy is
associated with the development of more severe symptoms of the disorder
(Thakur et al., 2013).
Is ADHD caused by poor parenting? Not likely. Remember, the genetics
studies discussed above suggested that the family environment does not
seem to play much of a role in the development of this disorder; if it
did, we would expect the concordance rates to be higher for fraternal
twins and adoptive siblings than has been demonstrated. All things
considered, the evidence seems to point to the conclusion that ADHD is
triggered more by genetic and neurological factors and less by social or
environmental ones.
A seminal paper published in 1943 by psychiatrist Leo Kanner described
an unusual neurodevelopmental condition he observed in a group of
children. He called this condition early infantile autism, and it was
characterized mainly by an inability to form close emotional ties with
others, speech and language abnormalities, repetitive behaviors, and an
intolerance of minor changes in the environment and in normal routines
(Bregman, 2005). What the DSM-5 refers to as autism spectrum
disorder{: data-type=“term”} today, is a direct extension of
Kanner’s work.
Autism spectrum disorder is probably the most misunderstood and puzzling
of the neurodevelopmental disorders. Children with this disorder show
signs of significant disturbances in three main areas: (a) deficits in
social interaction, (b) deficits in communication, and (c) repetitive
patterns of behavior or interests. These disturbances appear early in
life and cause serious impairments in functioning (APA, 2013). The child
with autism spectrum disorder might exhibit deficits in social
interaction by not initiating conversations with other children or
turning their head away when spoken to. These children do not make eye
contact with others and seem to prefer playing alone rather than with
others. In a certain sense, it is almost as though these individuals
live in a personal and isolated social world others are simply not privy
to or able to penetrate. Communication deficits can range from a
complete lack of speech, to one word responses (e.g., saying “Yes” or
“No” when replying to questions or statements that require additional
elaboration), to echoed speech (e.g., parroting what another person
says, either immediately or several hours or even days later), to
difficulty maintaining a conversation because of an inability to
reciprocate others’ comments. These deficits can also include problems
in using and understanding nonverbal cues (e.g., facial expressions,
gestures, and postures) that facilitate normal communication.
Repetitive patterns of behavior or interests can be exhibited a number
of ways. The child might engage in stereotyped, repetitive movements
(rocking, head-banging, or repeatedly dropping an object and then
picking it up), or she might show great distress at small changes in
routine or the environment. For example, the child might throw a temper
tantrum if an object is not in its proper place or if a
regularly-scheduled activity is rescheduled. In some cases, the person
with autism spectrum disorder might show highly restricted and fixated
interests that appear to be abnormal in their intensity. For instance,
the person might learn and memorize every detail about something even
though doing so serves no apparent purpose. Importantly, autism spectrum
disorder is not the same thing as intellectual disability, although
these two conditions are often comorbid. The DSM-5 specifies that the
symptoms of autism spectrum disorder are not caused or explained by
intellectual disability.
Autism spectrum disorder is referred to in everyday language as autism;
in fact, the disorder was termed “autistic disorder” in earlier editions
of the DSM, and its diagnostic criteria were much narrower than those of
autism spectrum disorder. The qualifier “spectrum” in autism spectrum
disorder is used to indicate that individuals with the disorder can show
a range, or spectrum, of symptoms that vary in their magnitude and
severity: some severe, others less severe. The previous edition of the
DSM included a diagnosis of Asperger’s disorder, generally recognized as
a less severe form of autistic disorder; individuals diagnosed with
Asperger’s disorder were described as having average or high
intelligence and a strong vocabulary, but exhibiting impairments in
social interaction and social communication, such as talking only about
their special interests (Wing, Gould, & Gillberg, 2011). However,
because research has failed to demonstrate that Asperger’s{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} disorder differs qualitatively from
autistic disorder, the DSM-5 does not include it, which is prompting
concerns among some parents that their children may no longer be
eligible for special services (“Asperger’s Syndrome Dropped,” 2012).
Some individuals with autism spectrum disorder, particularly those with
better language and intellectual skills, can live and work independently
as adults. However, most do not because the symptoms remain sufficient
to cause serious impairment in many realms of life (APA, 2013).
See also
Here is an instructive and poignant
video highlighting severe
autism.
Currently, estimates indicate that nearly 1 in 88 children in the United
States has autism spectrum disorder; the disorder is 5 times more common
in boys (1 out of 54) than girls (1 out of 252) (CDC, 2012). Rates of
autistic spectrum disorder have increased dramatically since the 1980s.
For example, California saw an increase of 273% in reported cases from
1987 through 1998 (Byrd, 2002); between 2000 and 2008, the rate of
autism diagnoses in the United States increased 78% (CDC, 2012).
Although it is difficult to interpret this increase, it is possible that
the rise in prevalence is the result of the broadening of the diagnosis,
increased efforts to identify cases in the community, and greater
awareness and acceptance of the diagnosis. In addition, mental health
professionals are now more knowledgeable about autism spectrum disorder
and are better equipped to make the diagnosis, even in subtle cases
(Novella, 2008).
Tip
Why Is the Prevalence Rate of ADHD Increasing?
Many people believe that the rates of ADHD have increased in recent
years, and there is evidence to support this contention. In a recent
study, investigators found that the parent-reported prevalence of
ADHD among children (4–17 years old) in the United States increased
by 22% during a 4-year period, from 7.8% in 2003 to 9.5% in 2007
(CDC, 2010). Over time this increase in parent-reported ADHD was
observed in all sociodemographic groups and was reflected by
substantial increases in 12 states (Indiana, North Carolina, and
Colorado were the top three). The increases were greatest for older
teens (ages 15–17), multiracial and Hispanic children, and children
with a primary language other than English. Another investigation
found that from 1998–2000 through 2007–2009 the parent-reported
prevalence of ADHD increased among U.S. children between the ages of
5–17 years old, from 6.9% to 9.0% (Akinbami, Liu, Pastor, & Reuben,
2011).
A major weakness of both studies was that children were not actually
given a formal diagnosis. Instead, parents were simply asked whether
or not a doctor or other health-care provider had ever told them
their child had ADHD; the reported prevalence rates thus may have
been affected by the accuracy of parental memory. Nevertheless, the
findings from these studies raise important questions concerning what
appears to be a demonstrable rise in the prevalence of ADHD. Although
the reasons underlying this apparent increase in the rates of ADHD
over time are poorly understood and, at best, speculative, several
explanations are viable:
ADHD may be over-diagnosed by doctors who are too quick to
medicate children as a behavior treatment.
There is greater awareness of ADHD now than in the past. Nearly
everyone has heard of ADHD, and most parents and teachers are
aware of its key symptoms. Thus, parents may be quick to take
their children to a doctor if they believe their child possesses
these symptoms, or teachers may be more likely now than in the
past to notice the symptoms and refer the child for evaluation.
The use of computers, video games, iPhones, and other electronic
devices has become pervasive among children in the early 21st
century, and these devices could potentially shorten children’s
attentions spans. Thus, what might seem like inattention to some
parents and teachers could simply reflect exposure to too much
technology.
Early theories of autism placed the blame squarely on the shoulders of
the child’s parents, particularly the mother. Bruno Bettelheim (an
Austrian-born American child psychologist who was heavily influenced by
Sigmund Freud’s ideas) suggested that a mother’s ambivalent attitudes
and her frozen and rigid emotions toward her child were the main causal
factors in childhood autism. In what must certainly stand as one of the
more controversial assertions in psychology over the last 50 years, he
wrote, “I state my belief that the precipitating factor in infantile
autism is the parent’s wish that his child should not exist”
(Bettelheim, 1967, p. 125). As you might imagine, Bettelheim did not
endear himself to a lot of people with this position; incidentally, no
scientific evidence exists supporting his claims.
The exact causes of autism spectrum disorder remain unknown despite
massive research efforts over the last two decades (Meek,
Lemery-Chalfant, Jahromi, & Valiente, 2013). Autism appears to be
strongly influenced by genetics, as identical twins show concordance
rates of 60%–90%, whereas concordance rates for fraternal twins and
siblings are 5%–10% (Autism Genome Project Consortium, 2007). Many
different genes and gene mutations have been implicated in autism (Meek
et al., 2013). Among the genes involved are those important in the
formation of synaptic circuits that facilitate communication between
different areas of the brain (Gauthier et al., 2011). A number of
environmental factors are also thought to be associated with increased
risk for autism spectrum disorder, at least in part, because they
contribute to new mutations. These factors include exposure to
pollutants, such as plant emissions and mercury, urban versus rural
residence, and vitamin D deficiency (Kinney, Barch, Chayka, Napoleon, &
Munir, 2009).
In the late 1990s, a prestigious medical journal published an article
purportedly showing that autism is triggered by the MMR (measles, mumps,
and rubella) vaccine. These findings were very controversial and drew a
great deal of attention, sparking an international forum on whether
children should be vaccinated. In a shocking turn of events, some years
later the article was retracted by the journal that had published it
after accusations of fraud on the part of the lead researcher. Despite
the retraction, the reporting in popular media led to concerns about a
possible link between vaccines and autism persisting. A recent survey of
parents, for example, found that roughly a third of respondents
expressed such a concern (Kennedy, LaVail, Nowak, Basket, & Landry,
2011); and perhaps fearing that their children would develop autism,
more than 10% of parents of young children refuse or delay
vaccinationspastehere (Dempsey et al.,
2011). Some parents of children with autism mounted a campaign against
scientists who refuted the vaccine-autism link. Even politicians and
several well-known celebrities weighed in; for example, actress Jenny
McCarthy (who believed that a vaccination caused her son’s autism)
co-authored a book on the matter. However, there is no scientific
evidence that a link exists between autism and vaccinations (Hughes,
2007). Indeed, a recent study compared the vaccination histories of 256
children with autism spectrum disorder with that of 752 control children
across three time periods during their first two years of life (birth to
3 months, birth to 7 months, and birth to 2 years) (DeStefano, Price, &
Weintraub, 2013). At the time of the study, the children were between 6
and 13 years old, and their prior vaccination records were obtained.
Because vaccines contain immunogens (substances that fight infections),
the investigators examined medical records to see how many immunogens
children received to determine if those children who received more
immunogens were at greater risk for developing autism spectrum disorder.
The results of this study, a portion of which are shown in
[link], clearly demonstrate that the
quantity of immunogens from vaccines received during the first two years
of life were not at all related to the development of autism spectrum
disorder. There is not a relationship between vaccinations and autism
spectrum disorders.
{:
#Figure_15_11_Immunogen}
Why does concern over vaccines and autism spectrum disorder persist?
Since the proliferation of the Internet in the 1990s, parents have been
constantly bombarded with online information that can become magnified
and take on a life of its own. The enormous volume of electronic
information pertaining to autism spectrum disorder, combined with how
difficult it can be to grasp complex scientific concepts, can make
separating good research from bad challenging (Downs, 2008). Notably,
the study that fueled the controversy reported that 8 out of 12
children—according to their parents—developed symptoms consistent with
autism spectrum disorder shortly after receiving a vaccination. To
conclude that vaccines cause autism spectrum disorder on this basis, as
many did, is clearly incorrect for a number of reasons, not the least of
which is because correlation does not imply causation, as you’ve
learned.
Additionally, as was the case with diet and ADHD in the 1970s, the
notion that autism spectrum disorder is caused by vaccinations is
appealing to some because it provides a simple explanation for this
condition. Like all disorders, however, there are no simple explanations
for autism spectrum disorder. Although the research discussed above has
shed some light on its causes, science is still a long way from complete
understanding of the disorder.
Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of disorders that are typically
diagnosed during childhood and are characterized by developmental
deficits in personal, social, academic, and intellectual realms; these
disorders include attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and
autism spectrum disorder. ADHD is characterized by a pervasive pattern
of inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes
with normal functioning. Genetic and neurobiological factors contribute
to the development of ADHD, which can persist well into adulthood and is
often associated with poor long-term outcomes. The major features of
autism spectrum disorder include deficits in social interaction and
communication and repetitive movements or interests. As with ADHD,
genetic factors appear to play a prominent role in the development of
autism spectrum disorder; exposure to environmental pollutants such as
mercury have also been linked to the development of this disorder.
Although it is believed by some that autism is triggered by the MMR
vaccination, evidence does not support this claim.
Question
Which of the following is not a primary characteristic of ADHD?
short attention span
difficulty concentrating and distractibility
restricted and fixated interest
excessive fidgeting and squirming {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
One of the primary characteristics of autism spectrum disorder is
________.
bed-wetting
difficulty relating to others
short attention span
intense and inappropriate interest in others {: type=“a”}
Compare the factors that are important in the development of ADHD
with those that are important in the development of autism
spectrum disorder.
Genetic factors appear to play a major role in the development of
both ADHD and autism spectrum disorder: studies show higher rates
of concordance among identical twins than among fraternal twins
for both disorders. In ADHD, genes that regulate dopamine have
been implicated; in autism spectrum disorder, de novo genetic
mutations appear to be important. Imaging studies suggest that
abnormalities in the frontal lobes may be important in the
development of ADHD. Parenting practices are not connected to the
development of either disorder. Although environmental toxins are
generally unimportant in the development of ADHD, exposure to
cigarette smoke during the prenatal period has been linked to the
development of the disorder; a number of environmental factors are
thought to be associated with an increased risk for autism
spectrum disorder: exposure to pollutants, an urban versus rural
residence, and vitamin D deficiency. Although some people continue
to believe that MMR vaccinations can cause autism spectrum
disorder (due to an influential paper that was later retracted),
there is no scientific evidence that supports this assertion.
Discuss the characteristics of autism spectrum disorder with a few
of your friends or members of your family (choose friends or
family members who know little about the disorder) and ask them if
they think the cause is due to bad parenting or vaccinations. If
they indicate that they believe either to be true, why do you
think this might be the case? What would be your response?
one of the disorders that are first diagnosed in childhood and
involve developmental problems in academic, intellectual, social
functioning
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Dissociative disorders{: data-type=“term”} are characterized by an
individual becoming split off, or dissociated, from her core sense of
self. Memory and identity become disturbed; these disturbances have a
psychological rather than physical cause. Dissociative disorders listed
in the DSM-5 include dissociative amnesia,
depersonalization/derealization disorder, and dissociative identity
disorder.
Amnesia refers to the partial or total forgetting of some experience or
event. An individual with dissociative amnesia{: data-type=“term”}
is unable to recall important personal information, usually following an
extremely stressful or traumatic experience such as combat, natural
disasters, or being the victim of violence. The memory impairments are
not caused by ordinary forgetting. Some individuals with dissociative
amnesia will also experience dissociative fugue{:
data-type=“term”} (from the word “to flee” in French), whereby they
suddenly wander away from their home, experience confusion about their
identity, and sometimes even adopt a new identity (Cardeña & Gleaves,
2006). Most fugue episodes last only a few hours or days, but some can
last longer. One study of residents in communities in upstate New York
reported that about 1.8% experienced dissociative amnesia in the
previous year (Johnson, Cohen, Kasen, & Brook, 2006).
Some have questioned the validity of dissociative amnesia (Pope, Hudson,
Bodkin, & Oliva, 1998); it has even been characterized as a “piece of
psychiatric folklore devoid of convincing empirical support” (McNally,
2003, p. 275). Notably, scientific publications regarding dissociative
amnesia rose during the 1980s and reached a peak in the mid-1990s,
followed by an equally sharp decline by 2003; in fact, only 13 cases of
individuals with dissociative amnesia worldwide could be found in the
literature that same year (Pope, Barry, Bodkin, & Hudson, 2006).
Further, no description of individuals showing dissociative amnesia
following a trauma exists in any fictional or nonfictional work prior to
1800 (Pope, Poliakoff, Parker, Boynes, & Hudson, 2006). However, a study
of 82 individuals who enrolled for treatment at a psychiatric outpatient
hospital found that nearly 10% met the criteria for dissociative
amnesia, perhaps suggesting that the condition is underdiagnosed,
especially in psychiatric populations (Foote, Smolin, Kaplan, Legatt, &
Lipschitz, 2006).
Depersonalization/derealization disorder is
characterized by recurring episodes of depersonalization, derealization,
or both. Depersonalization is defined as feelings of “unreality or
detachment from, or unfamiliarity with, one’s whole self or from aspects
of the self” (APA, 2013, p. 302). Individuals who experience
depersonalization might believe
their thoughts and feelings are not their own; they may feel robotic as
though they lack control over their movements and speech; they may
experience a distorted sense of time and, in extreme cases, they may
sense an “out-of-body” experience in which they see themselves from the
vantage point of another person. Derealization{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} is conceptualized as a sense of “unreality or detachment
from, or unfamiliarity with, the world, be it individuals, inanimate
objects, or all surroundings” (APA, 2013, p. 303). A person who
experiences derealization might feel as though he is in a fog or a
dream, or that the surrounding world is somehow artificial and unreal.
Individuals with depersonalization/derealization disorder often have
difficulty describing their symptoms and may think they are going crazy
(APA, 2013).
By far, the most well-known dissociative disorder is dissociative
identity disorder{: data-type=“term”} (formerly called multiple
personality disorder). People with dissociative identity disorder
exhibit two or more separate personalities or identities, each
well-defined and distinct from one another. They also experience memory
gaps for the time during which another identity is in charge (e.g., one
might find unfamiliar items in her shopping bags or among her
possessions), and in some cases may report hearing voices, such as a
child’s voice or the sound of somebody crying (APA, 2013). The study of
upstate New York residents mentioned above (Johnson et al., 2006)
reported that 1.5% of their sample experienced symptoms consistent with
dissociative identity disorder in the previous year.
Dissociative identity disorder (DID) is highly controversial. Some
believe that people fake symptoms to avoid the consequences of illegal
actions (e.g., “I am not responsible for shoplifting because it was my
other personality”). In fact, it has been demonstrated that people are
generally skilled at adopting the role of a person with different
personalities when they believe it might be advantageous to do so. As an
example, Kenneth Bianchi was an infamous serial killer who, along with
his cousin, murdered over a dozen females around Los Angeles in the late
1970s. Eventually, he and his cousin were apprehended. At Bianchi’s
trial, he pled not guilty by reason of insanity, presenting himself as
though he had DID and claiming that a different personality (“Steve
Walker”) committed the murders. When these claims were scrutinized, he
admitted faking the symptoms and was found guilty (Schwartz, 1981).
A second reason DID is controversial is because rates of the disorder
suddenly skyrocketed in the 1980s. More cases of DID were identified
during the five years prior to 1986 than in the preceding two centuries
(Putnam, Guroff, Silberman, Barban, & Post, 1986). Although this
increase may be due to the development of more sophisticated diagnostic
techniques, it is also possible that the popularization of DID—helped in
part by Sybil, a popular 1970s book (and later film) about a woman
with 16 different personalities—may have prompted clinicians to
overdiagnose the disorder (Piper & Merskey, 2004). Casting further
scrutiny on the existence of multiple personalities or identities is the
recent suggestion that the story of Sybil was largely fabricated, and
the idea for the book might have been exaggerated (Nathan, 2011).
Despite its controversial nature, DID is clearly a legitimate and
serious disorder, and although some people may fake symptoms, others
suffer their entire lives with it. People with this disorder tend to
report a history of childhood trauma, some cases having been
corroborated through medical or legal records (Cardeña & Gleaves, 2006).
Research by Ross et al. (1990) suggests that in one study about 95% of
people with DID were physically and/or sexually abused as children. Of
course, not all reports of childhood abuse can be expected to be valid
or accurate. However, there is strong evidence that traumatic
experiences can cause people to experience states of dissociation,
suggesting that dissociative states—including the adoption of multiple
personalities—may serve as a psychologically important coping mechanism
for threat and danger (Dalenberg et al., 2012).
The main characteristic of dissociative disorders is that people become
dissociated from their sense of self, resulting in memory and identity
disturbances. Dissociative disorders listed in the DSM-5 include
dissociative amnesia, depersonalization/derealization disorder, and
dissociative identity disorder. A person with dissociative amnesia is
unable to recall important personal information, often after a stressful
or traumatic experience.
Depersonalization/derealization disorder is characterized by recurring
episodes of depersonalization (i.e., detachment from or unfamiliarity
with the self) and/or derealization (i.e., detachment from or
unfamiliarity with the world). A person with dissociative identity
disorder exhibits two or more well-defined and distinct personalities or
identities, as well as memory gaps for the time during which another
identity was present.
Dissociative identity disorder has generated controversy, mainly because
some believe its symptoms can be faked by patients if presenting its
symptoms somehow benefits the patient in avoiding negative consequences
or taking responsibility for one’s actions. The diagnostic rates of this
disorder have increased dramatically following its portrayal in popular
culture. However, many people legitimately suffer over the course of a
lifetime with this disorder.
The prevalence of most psychological disorders has increased since
the 1980s. However, as discussed in this section, scientific
publications regarding dissociative amnesia peaked in the
mid-1990s but then declined steeply through 2003. In addition, no
fictional or nonfictional description of individuals showing
dissociative amnesia following a trauma exists prior to 1800. How
would you explain this phenomenon?
Several explanations are possible. One explanation is that perhaps
there is little scientific interest in this phenomenon, maybe
because it has yet to gain consistent scientific acceptance.
Another possible explanation is that perhaps the dissociative
amnesia was fashionable at the time publications dealing with this
topic peaked (1990s); perhaps since that time it has become less
fashionable.
Try to find an example (via a search engine) of a past instance in
which a person committed a horrible crime, was apprehended, and
later claimed to have dissociative identity disorder during the
trial. What was the outcome? Was the person revealed to be faking?
If so, how was this determined?
dissociative disorder characterized by an inability to recall
important personal information, usually following an extremely
stressful or traumatic experience ^
group of DSM-5 disorders in which the primary feature is that a
person becomes dissociated, or split off, from his or her core
sense of self, resulting in disturbances in identity and memory ^
dissociative disorder (formerly known as multiple personality
disorder) in which a person exhibits two or more distinct,
well-defined personalities or identities and experiences memory
gaps for the time during which another identity emerged
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Recognize the
essential nature of schizophrenia, avoiding the misconception that it
involves a split personality * Categorize and describe the major
symptoms of schizophrenia * Understand the interplay between
genetic, biological, and environmental factors that are associated
with the development of schizophrenia * Discuss the importance of
research examining prodromal symptoms of schizophrenia
Schizophrenia{: data-type=“term”} is a devastating psychological
disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought,
perception, emotion, and behavior. About 1% of the population
experiences schizophrenia in their lifetime, and usually the disorder is
first diagnosed during early adulthood (early to mid-20s). Most people
with schizophrenia experience significant difficulties in many
day-to-day activities, such as holding a job, paying bills, caring for
oneself (grooming and hygiene), and maintaining relationships with
others. Frequent hospitalizations are more often the rule rather than
the exception with schizophrenia. Even when they receive the best
treatments available, many with schizophrenia will continue to
experience serious social and occupational impairment throughout their
lives.
What is schizophrenia? First, schizophrenia is not a condition
involving a split personality; that is, schizophrenia is not the same
thing as dissociative identity disorder (better known as multiple
personality disorder). These disorders are sometimes confused because
the word schizophrenia first coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen
Bleuler in 1911, derives from Greek words that refer to a “splitting”
(schizo) of psychic functions (phrene) (Green, 2001).
Schizophrenia is considered a psychotic disorder, or one in which the
person’s thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors are impaired to the point
where she is not able to function normally in life. In informal terms,
one who suffers from a psychotic disorder (that is, has a psychosis) is
disconnected from the world in which most of us live.
The main symptoms of schizophrenia include hallucinations, delusions,
disorganized thinking, disorganized or abnormal motor behavior, and
negative symptoms (APA, 2013). A hallucination{: data-type=“term”}
is a perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external
stimulation. Auditory hallucinations (hearing voices) occur in roughly
two-thirds of patients with schizophrenia and are by far the most common
form of hallucination (Andreasen, 1987). The voices may be familiar or
unfamiliar, they may have a conversation or argue, or the voices may
provide a running commentary on the person’s behavior (Tsuang, Farone, &
Green, 1999).
Less common are visual hallucinations (seeing things that are not there)
and olfactory hallucinations (smelling odors that are not actually
present).
Delusions{: data-type=“term”} are beliefs that are contrary to
reality and are firmly held even in the face of contradictory evidence.
Many of us hold beliefs that some would consider odd, but a delusion is
easily identified because it is clearly absurd. A person with
schizophrenia may believe that his mother is plotting with the FBI to
poison his coffee, or that his neighbor is an enemy spy who wants to
kill him. These kinds of delusions are known as paranoid
delusions{: data-type=“term”}, which involve the (false) belief that
other people or agencies are plotting to harm the person. People with
schizophrenia also may hold grandiose delusions{:
data-type=“term”}, beliefs that one holds special power, unique
knowledge, or is extremely important. For example, the person who claims
to be Jesus Christ, or who claims to have knowledge going back 5,000
years, or who claims to be a great philosopher is experiencing grandiose
delusions. Other delusions include the belief that one’s thoughts are
being removed (thought withdrawal) or thoughts have been placed inside
one’s head (thought insertion). Another type of delusion is somatic
delusion{: data-type=“term”}, which is the belief that something
highly abnormal is happening to one’s body (e.g., that one’s kidneys are
being eaten by cockroaches).
Disorganized thinking{: data-type=“term”} refers to disjointed and
incoherent thought processes—usually detected by what a person says. The
person might ramble, exhibit loose associations (jump from topic to
topic), or talk in a way that is so disorganized and incomprehensible
that it seems as though the person is randomly combining words.
Disorganized thinking is also exhibited by blatantly illogical remarks
(e.g., “Fenway Park is in Boston. I live in Boston. Therefore, I live at
Fenway Park.”) and by tangentiality: responding to others’ statements or
questions by remarks that are either barely related or unrelated to what
was said or asked. For example, if a person diagnosed with schizophrenia
is asked if she is interested in receiving special job training, she
might state that she once rode on a train somewhere. To a person with
schizophrenia, the tangential (slightly related) connection between job
training and riding a train are sufficient enough to cause such a
response.
Disorganized or abnormal motor behavior{: data-type=“term”} refers
to unusual behaviors and movements: becoming unusually active,
exhibiting silly child-like behaviors (giggling and self-absorbed
smiling), engaging in repeated and purposeless movements, or displaying
odd facial expressions and gestures. In some cases, the person will
exhibit catatonic behaviors{: data-type=“term”}, which show
decreased reactivity to the environment, such as posturing, in which the
person maintains a rigid and bizarre posture for long periods of time,
or catatonic stupor, a complete lack of movement and verbal behavior.
Negative symptoms{: data-type=“term”} are those that reflect
noticeable decreases and absences in certain behaviors, emotions, or
drives (Green, 2001). A person who exhibits diminished emotional
expression shows no emotion in his facial expressions, speech, or
movements, even when such expressions are normal or expected. Avolition
is characterized by a lack of motivation to engage in self-initiated and
meaningful activity, including the most basic of tasks, such as bathing
and grooming. Alogia refers to reduced speech output; in simple terms,
patients do not say much. Another negative symptom is asociality, or
social withdrawal and lack of interest in engaging in social
interactions with others. A final negative symptom, anhedonia, refers to
an inability to experience pleasure. One who exhibits anhedonia
expresses little interest in what most people consider to be pleasurable
activities, such as hobbies, recreation, or sexual activity.
See also
Watch this video and try to
identify which classic symptoms of schizophrenia are shown.
There is considerable evidence suggesting that schizophrenia has a
genetic basis. The risk of developing schizophrenia is nearly 6 times
greater if one has a parent with schizophrenia than if one does not
(Goldstein, Buka, Seidman, & Tsuang, 2010). Additionally, one’s risk of
developing schizophrenia increases as genetic relatedness to family
members diagnosed with schizophrenia increases (Gottesman, 2001).
When considering the role of genetics in schizophrenia, as in any
disorder, conclusions based on family and twin studies are subject to
criticism. This is because family members who are closely related (such
as siblings) are more likely to share similar environments than are
family members who are less closely related (such as cousins); further,
identical twins may be more likely to be treated similarly by others
than might fraternal twins. Thus, family and twin studies cannot
completely rule out the possible effects of shared environments and
experiences. Such problems can be corrected by using adoption studies,
in which children are separated from their parents at an early age. One
of the first adoption studies of schizophrenia conducted by Heston
(1966) followed 97 adoptees, including 47 who were born to mothers with
schizophrenia, over a 36-year period. Five of the 47 adoptees (11%)
whose mothers had schizophrenia were later diagnosed with schizophrenia,
compared to none of the 50 control adoptees. Other adoption studies have
consistently reported that for adoptees who are later diagnosed with
schizophrenia, their biological relatives have a higher risk of
schizophrenia than do adoptive relatives (Shih, Belmonte, & Zandi,
2004).
Although adoption studies have supported the hypothesis that genetic
factors contribute to schizophrenia, they have also demonstrated that
the disorder most likely arises from a combination of genetic and
environmental factors, rather than just genes themselves. For example,
investigators in one study examined the rates of schizophrenia among 303
adoptees (Tienari et al., 2004). A total of 145 of the adoptees had
biological mothers with schizophrenia; these adoptees constituted the
high genetic risk group. The other 158 adoptees had mothers with no
psychiatric history; these adoptees composed the low genetic risk group.
The researchers managed to determine whether the adoptees’ families were
either healthy or disturbed. For example, the adoptees were considered
to be raised in a disturbed family environment if the family exhibited a
lot of criticism, conflict, and a lack of problem-solving skills. The
findings revealed that adoptees whose mothers had schizophrenia (high
genetic risk) and who had been raised in a disturbed family
environment were much more likely to develop schizophrenia or another
psychotic disorder (36.8%) than were adoptees whose biological mothers
had schizophrenia but who had been raised in a healthy environment
(5.8%), or than adoptees with a low genetic risk who were raised in
either a disturbed (5.3%) or healthy (4.8%) environment. Because the
adoptees who were at high genetic risk were likely to develop
schizophrenia only if they were raised in a disturbed home
environment, this study supports a diathesis-stress interpretation of
schizophrenia—both genetic vulnerability and environmental stress are
necessary for schizophrenia to develop, genes alone do not show the
complete picture.
If we accept that schizophrenia is at least partly genetic in origin, as
it seems to be, it makes sense that the next step should be to identify
biological abnormalities commonly found in people with the disorder.
Perhaps not surprisingly, a number of neurobiological factors have
indeed been found to be related to schizophrenia. One such factor that
has received considerable attention for many years is the
neurotransmitter dopamine. Interest in the role of dopamine in
schizophrenia was stimulated by two sets of findings: drugs that
increase dopamine levels can produce schizophrenia-like symptoms, and
medications that block dopamine activity reduce the symptoms (Howes &
Kapur, 2009). The dopamine hypothesis{: data-type=“term”} of
schizophrenia proposed that an overabundance of dopamine or too many
dopamine receptors are responsible for the onset and maintenance of
schizophrenia (Snyder, 1976). More recent work in this area suggests
that abnormalities in dopamine vary by brain region and thus contribute
to symptoms in unique ways. In general, this research has suggested that
an overabundance of dopamine in the limbic system may be responsible for
some symptoms, such as hallucinations and delusions, whereas low levels
of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex might be responsible primarily for
the negative symptoms (avolition, alogia, asociality, and anhedonia)
(Davis, Kahn, Ko, & Davidson, 1991). In recent years, serotonin has
received attention, and newer antipsychotic medications used to treat
the disorder work by blocking serotonin receptors (Baumeister & Hawkins,
2004).
Brain imaging studies reveal that people with schizophrenia have
enlarged ventricles{: data-type=“term”}, the cavities within the
brain that contain cerebral spinal fluid (Green, 2001). This finding is
important because larger than normal ventricles suggests that various
brain regions are reduced in size, thus implying that schizophrenia is
associated with a loss of brain tissue. In addition, many people with
schizophrenia display a reduction in gray matter (cell bodies of
neurons) in the frontal lobes (Lawrie & Abukmeil, 1998), and many show
less frontal lobe activity when performing cognitive tasks (Buchsbaum et
al., 1990). The frontal lobes are important in a variety of complex
cognitive functions, such as planning and executing behavior, attention,
speech, movement, and problem solving. Hence, abnormalities in this
region provide merit in explaining why people with schizophrenia
experience deficits in these of areas.
Why do people with schizophrenia have these brain abnormalities? A
number of environmental factors that could impact normal brain
development might be at fault. High rates of obstetric complications in
the births of children who later developed schizophrenia have been
reported (Cannon, Jones, & Murray, 2002). In addition, people are at an
increased risk for developing schizophrenia if their mother was exposed
to influenza during the first trimester of pregnancy (Brown et al.,
2004). Research has also suggested that a mother’s emotional stress
during pregnancy may increase the risk of schizophrenia in offspring.
One study reported that the risk of schizophrenia is elevated
substantially in offspring whose mothers experienced the death of a
relative during the first trimester of pregnancy (Khashan et al., 2008).
Another variable that is linked to schizophrenia is marijuana{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} use. Although a number of reports have
shown that individuals with schizophrenia are more likely to use
marijuana than are individuals without schizophrenia (Thornicroft,
1990), such investigations cannot determine if marijuana use leads to
schizophrenia, or vice versa. However, a number of longitudinal studies
have suggested that marijuana use is, in fact, a risk factor for
schizophrenia. A classic investigation of over 45,000 Swedish conscripts
who were followed up after 15 years found that those individuals who had
reported using marijuana at least once by the time of conscription were
more than 2 times as likely to develop schizophrenia during the ensuing
15 years than were those who reported never using marijuana; those who
had indicated using marijuana 50 or more times were 6 times as likely to
develop schizophrenia (Andréasson, Allbeck, Engström, & Rydberg, 1987).
More recently, a review of 35 longitudinal studies found a substantially
increased risk of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders in people
who had used marijuana, with the greatest risk in the most frequent
users (Moore et al., 2007). Other work has found that marijuana use is
associated with an onset of psychotic disorders at an earlier age
(Large, Sharma, Compton, Slade, & Nielssen, 2011). Overall, the
available evidence seems to indicate that marijuana use plays a causal
role in the development of schizophrenia, although it is important to
point out that marijuana use is not an essential or sufficient risk
factor as not all people with schizophrenia have used marijuana and the
majority of marijuana users do not develop schizophrenia (Casadio,
Fernandes, Murray, & Di Forti, 2011). One plausible interpretation of
the data is that early marijuana use may disrupt normal brain
development during important early maturation periods in adolescence
(Trezza, Cuomo, & Vanderschuren, 2008). Thus, early marijuana use may
set the stage for the development of schizophrenia and other psychotic
disorders, especially among individuals with an established
vulnerability (Casadio et al., 2011).
Early detection and treatment of conditions such as heart disease and
cancer have improved survival rates and quality of life for people who
suffer from these conditions. A new approach involves identifying people
who show minor symptoms of psychosis, such as unusual thought content,
paranoia, odd communication, delusions, problems at school or work, and
a decline in social functioning—which are coined prodromal
symptoms{: data-type=“term”}—and following these individuals over
time to determine which of them develop a psychotic disorder and which
factors best predict such a disorder. A number of factors have been
identified that predict a greater likelihood that prodromal individuals
will develop a psychotic disorder: genetic risk (a family history of
psychosis), recent deterioration in functioning, high levels of unusual
thought content, high levels of suspicion or paranoia, poor social
functioning, and a history of substance abuse (Fusar-Poli et al., 2013).
Further research will enable a more accurate prediction of those at
greatest risk for developing schizophrenia, and thus to whom early
intervention efforts should be directed.
Schizophrenia is a severe disorder characterized by a complete breakdown
in one’s ability to function in life; it often requires hospitalization.
People with schizophrenia experience hallucinations and delusions, and
they have extreme difficulty regulating their emotions and behavior.
Thinking is incoherent and disorganized, behavior is extremely bizarre,
emotions are flat, and motivation to engage in most basic life
activities is lacking. Considerable evidence shows that genetic factors
play a central role in schizophrenia; however, adoption studies have
highlighted the additional importance of environmental factors.
Neurotransmitter and brain abnormalities, which may be linked to
environmental factors such as obstetric complications or exposure to
influenza during the gestational period, have also been implicated. A
promising new area of schizophrenia research involves identifying
individuals who show prodromal symptoms and following them over time to
determine which factors best predict the development of schizophrenia.
Future research may enable us to pinpoint those especially at risk for
developing schizophrenia and who may benefit from early intervention.
Question
Clifford falsely believes that the police have planted secret
cameras in his home to monitor his every movement. Clifford’s
belief is an example of ________.
a delusion
a hallucination
tangentiality
a negative symptom {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
A study of adoptees whose biological mothers had schizophrenia
found that the adoptees were most likely to develop schizophrenia
________.
if their childhood friends later developed schizophrenia
if they abused drugs during adolescence
if they were raised in a disturbed adoptive home environment
regardless of whether they were raised in a healthy or
disturbed home environment {: type=“a”}
Why is research following individuals who show prodromal symptoms
of schizophrenia so important?
This kind of research is important because it enables
investigators to identify potential warning signs that predict the
onset of schizophrenia. Once such factors are identified,
interventions may be developed.
highly unusual behaviors and movements (such as child-like
behaviors), repeated and purposeless movements, and displaying odd
facial expressions and gestures ^
theory of schizophrenia that proposes that an overabundance of
dopamine or dopamine receptors is responsible for the onset and
maintenance of schizophrenia ^
perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external
stimulation, such as the auditory hallucinations (hearing voices)
common to schizophrenia ^
characterized by decreases and absences in certain normal
behaviors, emotions, or drives, such as an expressionless face,
lack of motivation to engage in activities, reduced speech, lack
of social engagement, and inability to experience pleasure ^
severe disorder characterized by major disturbances in thought,
perception, emotion, and behavior with symptoms that include
hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking and behavior, and
negative symptoms ^
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
nature and symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder * Identify the
risk factors associated with this disorder * Understand the role of
learning and cognitive factors in its development
Extremely stressful or traumatic events, such as combat, natural
disasters, and terrorist attacks, place the people who experience them
at an increased risk for developing psychological disorders such as
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD){: data-type=“term”}.
Throughout much of the 20th century, this disorder was called shell
shock and combat neurosis because its symptoms were observed in
soldiers who had engaged in wartime combat. By the late 1970s it had
become clear that women who had experienced sexual traumas (e.g., rape,
domestic battery, and incest) often experienced the same set of symptoms
as did soldiers (Herman, 1997). The term posttraumatic stress disorder
was developed given that these symptoms could happen to anyone who
experienced psychological trauma.
PTSD was listed among the anxiety disorders in previous DSM editions. In
DSM-5, it is now listed among a group called Trauma-and-Stressor-Related
Disorders. For a person to be diagnosed with PTSD, she must be exposed
to, witness, or experience the details of a traumatic experience (e.g.,
a first responder), one that involves “actual or threatened death,
serious injury, or sexual violence” (APA, 2013, p. 271). These
experiences can include such events as combat, threatened or actual
physical attack, sexual assault, natural disasters, terrorist attacks,
and automobile accidents. This criterion makes PTSD the only disorder
listed in the DSM in which a cause (extreme trauma) is explicitly
specified.
Symptoms of PTSD include intrusive and distressing memories of the
event, flashbacks{: data-type=“term”} (states that can last from a
few seconds to several days, during which the individual relives the
event and behaves as if the event were occurring at that moment [APA,
2013]), avoidance of stimuli connected to the event, persistently
negative emotional states (e.g., fear, anger, guilt, and shame),
feelings of detachment from others, irritability, proneness toward
outbursts, and an exaggerated startle response (jumpiness). For PTSD to
be diagnosed, these symptoms must occur for at least one month.
Roughly 7% of adults in the United States, including 9.7% of women and
3.6% of men, experience PTSD in their lifetime (National Comorbidity
Survey, 2007), with higher rates among people exposed to mass trauma and
people whose jobs involve duty-related trauma exposure (e.g., police
officers, firefighters, and emergency medical personnel) (APA, 2013).
Nearly 21% of residents of areas affected by Hurricane Katrina suffered
from PTSD one year following the hurricane (Kessler et al., 2008), and
12.6% of Manhattan residents were observed as having PTSD 2–3 years
after the 9/11 terrorist attacks (DiGrande et al., 2008).
Of course, not everyone who experiences a traumatic event will go on to
develop PTSD; several factors strongly predict the development of PTSD:
trauma experience, greater trauma severity, lack of immediate social
support, and more subsequent life stress (Brewin, Andrews, & Valentine,
2000). Traumatic events that involve harm by others (e.g., combat, rape,
and sexual molestation) carry greater risk than do other traumas (e.g.,
natural disasters) (Kessler, Sonnega, Bromet, Hughes, & Nelson, 1995).
Factors that increase the risk of PTSD include female gender, low
socioeconomic status, low intelligence, personal history of mental
disorders, history of childhood adversity (abuse or other trauma during
childhood), and family history of mental disorders (Brewin et al.,
2000). Personality characteristics such as neuroticism and somatization
(the tendency to experience physical symptoms when one encounters
stress) have been shown to elevate the risk of PTSD (Bramsen,
Dirkzwager, & van der Ploeg, 2000). People who experience childhood
adversity and/or traumatic experiences during adulthood are at
significantly higher risk of developing PTSD if they possess one or two
short versions of a gene that regulates the neurotransmitter serotonin
(Xie et al., 2009). This suggests a possible diathesis-stress
interpretation of PTSD: its development is influenced by the interaction
of psychosocial and biological factors.
Research has shown that social support following a traumatic event can
reduce the likelihood of PTSD (Ozer, Best, Lipsey, & Weiss, 2003).
Social support is often defined as the comfort, advice, and assistance
received from relatives, friends, and neighbors. Social support can help
individuals cope during difficult times by allowing them to discuss
feelings and experiences and providing a sense of being loved and
appreciated. A 14-year study of 1,377 American Legionnaires who had
served in the Vietnam War found that those who perceived less social
support when they came home were more likely to develop PTSD than were
those who perceived greater support
([link]). In addition, those who became
involved in the community were less likely to develop PTSD, and they
were more likely to experience a remission of PTSD than were those who
were less involved (Koenen, Stellman, Stellman, & Sommer, 2003).
PTSD learning models suggest that some symptoms are developed and
maintained through classical conditioning. The traumatic event may act
as an unconditioned stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response
characterized by extreme fear and anxiety. Cognitive, emotional,
physiological, and environmental cues accompanying or related to the
event are conditioned stimuli. These traumatic reminders evoke
conditioned responses (extreme fear and anxiety) similar to those caused
by the event itself (Nader, 2001). A person who was in the vicinity of
the Twin Towers during the 9/11 terrorist attacks and who developed PTSD
may display excessive hypervigilance and distress when planes fly
overhead; this behavior constitutes a conditioned response to the
traumatic reminder (conditioned stimulus of the sight and sound of an
airplane). Differences in how conditionable individuals are help to
explain differences in the development and maintenance of PTSD symptoms
(Pittman, 1988). Conditioning studies demonstrate facilitated
acquisition of conditioned responses and delayed extinction of
conditioned responses in people with PTSD (Orr et al., 2000).
Cognitive factors are important in the development and maintenance of
PTSD. One model suggests that two key processes are crucial:
disturbances in memory for the event, and negative appraisals of the
trauma and its aftermath (Ehlers & Clark, 2000). According to this
theory, some people who experience traumas do not form coherent memories
of the trauma; memories of the traumatic event are poorly encoded and,
thus, are fragmented, disorganized, and lacking in detail. Therefore,
these individuals are unable remember the event in a way that gives it
meaning and context. A rape victim who cannot coherently remember the
event may remember only bits and pieces (e.g., the attacker repeatedly
telling her she is stupid); because she was unable to develop a fully
integrated memory, the fragmentary memory tends to stand out. Although
unable to retrieve a complete memory of the event, she may be haunted by
intrusive fragments involuntarily triggered by stimuli associated with
the event (e.g., memories of the attacker’s comments when encountering a
person who resembles the attacker). This interpretation fits previously
discussed material concerning PTSD and conditioning. The model also
proposes that negative appraisals of the event (“I deserved to be raped
because I’m stupid”) may lead to dysfunctional behavioral strategies
(e.g., avoiding social activities where men are likely to be present)
that maintain PTSD symptoms by preventing both a change in the nature of
the memory and a change in the problematic appraisals.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was described through much of the
20th century and was referred to as shell shock and combat neurosis in
the belief that its symptoms were thought to emerge from the stress of
active combat. Today, PTSD is defined as a disorder in which the
experience of a traumatic or profoundly stressful event, such as combat,
sexual assault, or natural disaster, produces a constellation of
symptoms that must last for one month or more. These symptoms include
intrusive and distressing memories of the event, flashbacks, avoidance
of stimuli or situations that are connected to the event, persistently
negative emotional states, feeling detached from others, irritability,
proneness toward outbursts, and a tendency to be easily startled. Not
everyone who experiences a traumatic event will develop PTSD; a variety
of risk factors associated with its development have been identified.
Question
Symptoms of PTSD include all of the following except ________.
intrusive thoughts or memories of a traumatic event
avoidance of things that remind one of a traumatic event
jumpiness
physical complaints that cannot be explained medically {:
type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
Which of the following elevates the risk for developing PTSD?
List some of the risk factors associated with the development of
PTSD following a traumatic event.
Risk factors associated with PTSD include gender (female), low
socioeconomic status, low intelligence, personal and family
history of mental illness, and childhood abuse or trauma.
Personality factors, including neuroticism and somatization, may
also serve as risk factors. Also, certain versions of a gene that
regulates serotonin may constitute a diathesis.
psychological state lasting from a few seconds to several days,
during which one relives a traumatic event and behaves as though
the event were occurring at that moment ^
experiencing a profoundly traumatic event leads to a constellation
of symptoms that include intrusive and distressing memories of the
event, avoidance of stimuli connected to the event, negative
emotional states, feelings of detachment from others,
irritability, proneness toward outbursts, hypervigilance, and a
tendency to startle easily; these symptoms must occur for at least
one month
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You may do so in any reasonable manner,
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the
nature of personality disorders and how they differ from other
disorders * List and distinguish between the three clusters of
personality disorders * Identify the basic features of borderline
personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder, and the
factors that are important in the etiology of both
The term personality refers loosely to one’s stable, consistent, and
distinctive way of thinking about, feeling, acting, and relating to the
world. People with personality disorders{: data-type=“term”}
exhibit a personality style that differs markedly from the expectations
of their culture, is pervasive and inflexible, begins in adolescence or
early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment (APA, 2013).
Generally, individuals with these disorders exhibit enduring personality
styles that are extremely troubling and often create problems for them
and those with whom they come into contact. Their maladaptive
personality styles frequently bring them into conflict with others,
disrupt their ability to develop and maintain social relationships, and
prevent them from accomplishing realistic life goals.
The DSM-5 recognizes 10 personality disorders, organized into 3
different clusters. Cluster A disorders include paranoid personality
disorderpastehere, schizoid personality
disorderpastehere, and schizotypal
personality disorderpastehere. People with
these disorders display a personality style that is odd or eccentric.
Cluster B disorders include antisocial personality disorder,
histrionic personality disorderpastehere,
narcissistic personality disorder{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis}, and borderline personality disorder. People with these
disorders usually are impulsive, overly dramatic, highly emotional, and
erratic. Cluster C disorders include avoidant personality
disorderpastehere, dependent personality
disorderpastehere, and
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} (which is not the same thing as obsessive-compulsive
disorder). People with these disorders often appear to be nervous and
fearful. [link] provides a description of each of
the DSM-5 personality disorders:
DSM-5 Personality Disorders
DSM-5 Personality Disorder
Description
Cluster
Paranoid
harbors a pervasive and unjustifiable suspiciousness and mistrust of
others; reluctant to confide in or become close to others; reads hidden
demeaning or threatening meaning into benign remarks or events; takes
offense easily and bears grudges; not due to schizophrenia or other
psychotic disorders
A
Schizoid
lacks interest and desire to form relationships with others; aloof and
shows emotional coldness and detachment; indifferent to approval or
criticism of others; lacks close friends or confidants; not due to
schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders, not an autism spectrum
disorder
A
Schizotypal
exhibits eccentricities in thought, perception, emotion, speech, and
behavior; shows suspiciousness or paranoia; has unusual perceptual
experiences; speech is often idiosyncratic; displays inappropriate
emotions; lacks friends or confidants; not due to schizophrenia or other
psychotic disorder, or to autism spectrum disorder
A
Antisocial
continuously violates the rights of others; history of antisocial
tendencies prior to age 15; often lies, fights, and has problems with
the law; impulsive and fails to think ahead; can be deceitful and
manipulative in order to gain profit or pleasure; irresponsible and
often fails to hold down a job or pay financial debts; lacks feelings
for others and remorse over misdeeds
B
Histrionic
excessively overdramatic, emotional, and theatrical; feels uncomfortable
when not the center of others’ attention; behavior is often
inappropriately seductive or provocative; speech is highly emotional but
often vague and diffuse; emotions are shallow and often shift rapidly;
may alienate friends with demands for constant attention
B
Narcissistic
overinflated and unjustified sense of self-importance and preoccupied
with fantasies of success; believes he is entitled to special treatment
from others; shows arrogant attitudes and behaviors; takes advantage of
others; lacks empathy
B
Borderline
unstable in self-image, mood, and behavior; cannot tolerate being alone
and experiences chronic feelings of emptiness; unstable and intense
relationships with others; behavior is impulsive, unpredictable, and
sometimes self-damaging; shows inappropriate and intense anger; makes
suicidal gestures
B
Avoidant
socially inhibited and oversensitive to negative evaluation; avoids
occupations that involve interpersonal contact because of fears of
criticism or rejection; avoids relationships with others unless
guaranteed to be accepted unconditionally; feels inadequate and views
self as socially inept and unappealing; unwilling to take risks or
engage in new activities if they may prove embarrassing
C
Dependent
allows others to take over and run her life; is submissive, clingy, and
fears separation; cannot make decisions without advice and reassurance
from others; lacks self-confidence; cannot do things on her own; feels
uncomfortable or helpless when alone
C
Obsessive-Compulsive
pervasive need for perfectionism that interferes with the ability to
complete tasks; preoccupied with details, rules, order, and schedules;
excessively devoted to work at the expense of leisure and friendships;
rigid, inflexible, and stubborn; insists things be done his way; miserly
with money
C
Slightly over 9% of the U.S. population suffers from a personality
disorder, with avoidant and schizoid personality disorders the most
frequent (Lezenweger, Lane, Loranger, & Kessler, 2007). Two of these
personality disorders, borderline personality disorder and antisocial
personality disorder, are regarded by many as especially problematic.
The “borderline” in borderline personality disorder was originally
coined in the late 1930s in an effort to describe patients who appeared
anxious, but were prone to brief psychotic experiences—that is, patients
who were thought to be literally on the borderline between anxiety and
psychosis (Freeman, Stone, Martin, & Reinecke, 2005). Today,
borderline personality disorder{: data-type=“term”} has a
completely different meaning. Borderline personality disorder is
characterized chiefly by instability in interpersonal relationships,
self-image, and mood, as well as marked impulsivity (APA, 2013). People
with borderline personality disorder cannot tolerate the thought of
being alone and will make frantic efforts (including making suicidal
gestures and engaging in self-mutilation) to avoid abandonment or
separation (whether real or imagined). Their relationships are intense
and unstable; for example, a lover may be idealized early in a
relationship, but then later vilified at the slightest sign she appears
to no longer show interest. These individuals have an unstable view of
self and, thus, might suddenly display a shift in personal attitudes,
interests, career plans, and choice of friends. For example, a law
school student may, despite having invested tens of thousands of dollars
toward earning a law degree and despite having performed well in the
program, consider dropping out and pursuing a career in another field.
People with borderline personality disorder may be highly impulsive and
may engage in reckless and self-destructive behaviors such as excessive
gambling, spending money irresponsibly, substance abuse, engaging in
unsafe sex, and reckless driving. They sometimes show intense and
inappropriate anger that they have difficulty controlling, and they can
be moody, sarcastic, bitter, and verbally abusive.
The prevalence of borderline personality disorder in the U.S. population
is estimated to be around 1.4% (Lezenweger et al., 2007), but the rates
are higher among those who use mental health services; approximately 10%
of mental health outpatients and 20% of psychiatric inpatients meet the
criteria for diagnosis (APA, 2013). Additionally, borderline personality
disorder is comorbid with anxiety, mood, and substance use disorders
(Lezenweger et al., 2007).
Genetic factors appear to be important in the development of borderline
personality disorder. For example, core personality traits that
characterize this disorder, such as impulsivity and emotional
instability, show a high degree of heritability (Livesley, 2008). Also,
the rates of borderline personality disorder among relatives of people
with this disorder have been found to be as high as 24.9% (White,
Gunderson, Zanarani, & Hudson, 2003). Individuals with borderline
personality disorder report experiencing childhood physical, sexual,
and/or emotional abuse at rates far greater than those observed in the
general population (Afifi et al., 2010), indicating that environmental
factors are also crucial. These findings would suggest that borderline
personality disorder may be determined by an interaction between genetic
factors and adverse environmental experiences. Consistent with this
hypothesis, one study found that the highest rates of borderline
personality disorder were among individuals with a borderline
temperament (characterized by high novelty seeking and high
harm-avoidance) and those who experienced childhood abuse and/or neglect
(Joyce et al., 2003).
Most human beings live in accordance with a moral compass, a sense of
right and wrong. Most individuals learn at a very young age that there
are certain things that should not be done. We learn that we should not
lie or cheat. We are taught that it is wrong to take things that do not
belong to us, and that it is wrong to exploit others for personal gain.
We also learn the importance of living up to our responsibilities, of
doing what we say we will do. People with antisocial personality
disorder, however, do not seem to have a moral compass. These
individuals act as though they neither have a sense of nor care about
right or wrong. Not surprisingly, these people represent a serious
problem for others and for society in general.
According to the DSM-5, the individual with antisocial personality
disorder{: data-type=“term”} (sometimes referred to as psychopathy)
shows no regard at all for other people’s rights or feelings. This lack
of regard is exhibited a number of ways and can include repeatedly
performing illegal acts, lying to or conning others, impulsivity and
recklessness, irritability and aggressiveness toward others, and failure
to act in a responsible way (e.g., leaving debts unpaid) (APA, 2013).
The worst part about antisocial personality disorder, however, is that
people with this disorder have no remorse over one’s misdeeds; these
people will hurt, manipulate, exploit, and abuse others and not feel any
guilt. Signs of this disorder can emerge early in life; however, a
person must be at least 18 years old to be diagnosed with antisocial
personality disorder.
People with antisocial personality disorder seem to view the world as
self-serving and unkind. They seem to think that they should use
whatever means necessary to get by in life. They tend to view others not
as living, thinking, feeling beings, but rather as pawns to be used or
abused for a specific purpose. They often have an over-inflated sense of
themselves and can appear extremely arrogant. They frequently display
superficial charm; for example, without really meaning it they might say
exactly what they think another person wants to hear. They lack empathy:
they are incapable of understanding the emotional point-of-view of
others. People with this disorder may become involved in illegal
enterprises, show cruelty toward others, leave their jobs with no plans
to obtain another job, have multiple sexual partners, repeatedly get
into fights with others, and show reckless disregard for themselves and
others (e.g., repeated arrests for driving while intoxicated) (APA,
2013).
A useful way to conceptualize antisocial personality disorder is boiling
the diagnosis down to three major concepts: disinhibition, boldness, and
meanness (Patrick, Fowles, & Krueger, 2009). Disinhibition is a
propensity toward impulse control problems, lack of planning and
forethought, insistence on immediate gratification, and inability to
restrain behavior. Boldness describes a tendency to remain calm in
threatening situations, high self-assurance, a sense of dominance, and a
tendency toward thrill-seeking. Meanness is defined as “aggressive
resource seeking without regard for others,” and is signaled by a lack
of empathy, disdain for and lack of close relationships with others, and
a tendency to accomplish goals through cruelty (Patrick et al., 2009,
p. 913).
Antisocial personality disorder is observed in about 3.6% of the
population; the disorder is much more common among males, with a 3 to 1
ratio of men to women, and it is more likely to occur in men who are
younger, widowed, separated, divorced, of lower socioeconomic status,
who live in urban areas, and who live in the western United States
(Compton, Conway, Stinson, Colliver, & Grant, 2005). Compared to men
with antisocial personality disorder, women with the disorder are more
likely to have experienced emotional neglect and sexual abuse during
childhood, and they are more likely to have had parents who abused
substances and who engaged in antisocial behaviors themselves (Alegria
et al., 2013).
[link] shows some of the differences in the
specific types of antisocial behaviors that men and women with
antisocial personality disorder exhibit (Alegria et al., 2013).
Gender Differences in Antisocial Personality Disorder
Men with antisocial personality disorder are more likely than women with
antisocial personality disorder to
Women with antisocial personality disorder are more likely than men with
antisocial personality to
do things that could easily hurt themselves or others
receive three or more traffic tickets for reckless driving
have their driver’s license suspended
destroy others’ property
start a fire on purpose
make money illegally
do anything that could lead to arrest
hit someone hard enough to injure them
hurt an animal on purpose
</td>
<td>
<ul>
<li>run away from home overnight</li>
<li>frequently miss school or work</li>
<li>lie frequently </li>
<li>forge someone’s signature</li>
<li>get into a fight that comes to blows with an intimate partner</li>
<li>live with others besides the family for at least one month</li>
<li>harass, threaten, or blackmail someone</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
Family, twin, and adoption studies suggest that both genetic and
environmental factors influence the development of antisocial
personality disorder, as well as general antisocial behavior
(criminality, violence, aggressiveness) (Baker, Bezdjian, & Raine,
2006). Personality and temperament dimensions that are related to this
disorder, including fearlessness, impulsive antisociality, and
callousness, have a substantial genetic influence (Livesley & Jang,
2008). Adoption studies clearly demonstrate that the development of
antisocial behavior is determined by the interaction of genetic factors
and adverse environmental circumstances (Rhee & Waldman, 2002). For
example, one investigation found that adoptees of biological parents
with antisocial personality disorder were more likely to exhibit
adolescent and adult antisocial behaviors if they were raised in adverse
adoptive family environments (e.g., adoptive parents had marital
problems, were divorced, used drugs, and had legal problems) than if
they were raised in a more normal adoptive environment (Cadoret, Yates,
Ed, Woodworth, & Stewart, 1995).
Researchers who are interested in the importance of environment in the
development of antisocial personality disorder have directed their
attention to such factors as the community, the structure and
functioning of the family, and peer groups. Each of these factors
influences the likelihood of antisocial behavior. One longitudinal
investigation of more than 800 Seattle-area youth measured risk factors
for violence at 10, 14, 16, and 18 years of age (Herrenkohl et al.,
2000). The risk factors examined included those involving the family,
peers, and community. A portion of the findings from this study are
provided in [link].
{: #Figure_15_10_Riskfactor}
Those with antisocial tendencies do not seem to experience emotions the
way most other people do. These individuals fail to show fear in
response to environment cues that signal punishment, pain, or noxious
stimulation. For instance, they show less skin conductance (sweatiness
on hands) in anticipation of electric shock than do people without
antisocial tendencies (Hare, 1965). Skin conductance is controlled by
the sympathetic nervous system and is used to assess autonomic nervous
system functioning. When the sympathetic nervous system is active,
people become aroused and anxious, and sweat gland activity increases.
Thus, increased sweat gland activity, as assessed through skin
conductance, is taken as a sign of arousal or anxiety. For those with
antisocial personality disorder, a lack of skin conductance may indicate
the presence of characteristics such as emotional deficits and
impulsivity that underlie the propensity for antisocial behavior and
negative social relationships (Fung et al., 2005).
While emotional deficits may contribute to antisocial personality
disorder, so too might an inability to relate to others’ pain. In a
recent study, 80 prisoners were shown photos of people being
intentionally hurt by others (e.g., someone crushing a person’s hand in
an automobile door) while undergoing brain imaging (Decety, Skelly, &
Kiehl, 2013). Prisoners who scored high on a test of antisocial
tendencies showed significantly less activation in brain regions
involved in the experience of empathy and feeling concerned for others
than did prisoners with low scores on the antisocial test. Notably, the
prisoners who scored high on the antisocial test showed greater
activation in a brain area involved self-awareness, cognitive function,
and interpersonal experience. The investigators suggested that the
heightened activation in this region when watching social interactions
involving one person harming another may reflect a propensity or desire
for this kind of behavior.
Individuals with personality disorders exhibit a personality style that
is inflexible, causes distress and impairment, and creates problems for
themselves and others. The DSM-5 recognizes 10 personality disorders,
organized into three clusters. The disorders in Cluster A include those
characterized by a personality style that is odd and eccentric. Cluster
B includes personality disorders characterized chiefly by a personality
style that is impulsive, dramatic, highly emotional, and erratic, and
those in Cluster C are characterized by a nervous and fearful
personality style. Two Cluster B personality disorders, borderline
personality disorder and antisocial personality disorder, are especially
problematic. People with borderline personality disorder show marked
instability in mood, behavior, and self-image, as well as impulsivity.
They cannot stand to be alone, are unpredictable, have a history of
stormy relationships, and frequently display intense and inappropriate
anger. Genetic factors and adverse childhood experiences (e.g., sexual
abuse) appear to be important in its development. People with antisocial
personality display a lack of regard for the rights of others; they are
impulsive, deceitful, irresponsible, and unburdened by any sense of
guilt. Genetic factors and socialization both appear to be important in
the origin of antisocial personality disorder. Research has also shown
that those with this disorder do not experience emotions the way most
other people do.
Question
People with borderline personality disorder often ________.
try to be the center of attention
are shy and withdrawn
are impulsive and unpredictable
tend to accomplish goals through cruelty {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Antisocial personality disorder is associated with ________.
Imagine that a child has a genetic vulnerability to antisocial
personality disorder. How might this child’s environment shape the
likelihood of developing this personality disorder?
The environment is likely to be very instrumental in determining
the likelihood of developing antisocial personality disorder.
Research has shown that adverse family environments (e.g., divorce
or marital problems, legal problems, and drug use) are connected
to antisocial personality disorder, particularly if one is
genetically vulnerable. Beyond one’s family environment, peer
group delinquency and community variables (e.g., economic
deprivation, community disorganization, drug use, and the presence
of adult antisocial models) heighten the risk of violent behavior.
instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood,
as well as impulsivity; key features include intolerance of being
alone and fear of abandonment, unstable relationships,
unpredictable behavior and moods, and intense and inappropriate
anger ^
group of DSM-5 disorders characterized by an inflexible and
pervasive personality style that differs markedly from the
expectations of one’s culture and causes distress and impairment;
people with these disorders have a personality style that
frequently brings them into conflict with others and disrupts
their ability to develop and maintain social relationships
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
On Monday, September 16, 2013, a gunman killed 12 people as the workday
began at the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, DC. Aaron Alexis, 34,
had a troubled history: he thought that he was being controlled by radio
waves. He called the police to complain about voices in his head and
being under surveillance by “shadowy forces” (Thomas, Levine, Date, &
Cloherty, 2013). While Alexis’s actions cannot be excused, it is clear
that he had some form of mental illness. Mental illness is not
necessarily a cause of violence; it is far more likely that the mentally
ill will be victims rather than perpetrators of violence (Stuart, 2003).
If, however, Alexis had received the help he needed, this tragedy might
have been averted.
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Distinguish
normal states of sadness and euphoria from states of depression and
mania * Describe the symptoms of major depressive disorder and
bipolar disorder * Understand the differences between major
depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder, and identify
two subtypes of depression * Define the criteria for a manic episode
* Understand genetic, biological, and psychological explanations of
major depressive disorder * Discuss the relationship between mood
disorders and suicidal ideation, as well as factors associated with
suicide
Blake cries all day and feeling that he is worthless and his life is
hopeless, he cannot get out of bed. Crystal stays up all night, talks
very rapidly, and went on a shopping spree in which she spent $3,000 on
furniture, although she cannot afford it. Maria recently had a baby, and
she feels overwhelmed, teary, anxious, and panicked, and believes she is
a terrible mother—practically every day since the baby was born. All
these individuals demonstrate symptoms of a potential mood disorder.
Mood disorders{: data-type=“term”}
([link]) are characterized by severe
disturbances in mood and emotions—most often depression, but also mania
and elation (Rothschild, 1999). All of us experience fluctuations in our
moods and emotional states, and often these fluctuations are caused by
events in our lives. We become elated if our favorite team wins the
World Series and dejected if a romantic relationship ends or if we lose
our job. At times, we feel fantastic or miserable for no clear reason.
People with mood disorders also experience mood fluctuations, but their
fluctuations are extreme, distort their outlook on life, and impair
their ability to function.
{:
#Figure_15_07_Moods}
The DSM-5 lists two general categories of mood disorders. Depressive
disorders{: data-type=“term”} are a group of disorders in which
depressionpastehere is the main feature.
Depression is a vague term that, in everyday language, refers to an
intense and persistent sadness. Depression is a heterogeneous mood
state—it consists of a broad spectrum of symptoms that range in
severity. Depressed people feel sad, discouraged, and hopeless. These
individuals lose interest in activities once enjoyed, often experience a
decrease in drives such as hunger and sex, and frequently doubt personal
worth. Depressive disorders vary by degree, but this chapter highlights
the most well-known: major depressive disorder (sometimes called
unipolar depression).
Bipolar and related disorders{: data-type=“term”} are a group of
disorders in which mania is the defining feature. Mania{:
data-type=“term”} is a state of extreme elation and agitation. When
people experience mania, they may become extremely talkative, behave
recklessly, or attempt to take on many tasks simultaneously. The most
recognized of these disorders is bipolar disorder.
According to the DSM-5, the defining symptoms of major depressive
disorder{: data-type=“term”} include “depressed mood most of the
day, nearly every day” (feeling sad, empty, hopeless, or appearing
tearful to others), and loss of interest and pleasure in usual
activities (APA, 2013). In addition to feeling overwhelmingly sad most
of each day, people with depression will no longer show interest or
enjoyment in activities that previously were gratifying, such as
hobbies, sports, sex, social events, time spent with family, and so on.
Friends and family members may notice that the person has completely
abandoned previously enjoyed hobbies; for example, an avid tennis player
who develops major depressive disorder no longer plays tennis
(Rothschild, 1999).
To receive a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, one must experience
a total of five symptoms for at least a two-week period; these symptoms
must cause significant distress or impair normal functioning, and they
must not be caused by substances or a medical condition. At least one of
the two symptoms mentioned above must be present, plus any combination
of the following symptoms (APA, 2013):
significant weight loss (when not dieting) or weight gain and/or
significant decrease or increase in appetite;
difficulty falling asleep or sleeping too much;
psychomotor agitation (the person is noticeably fidgety and jittery,
demonstrated by behaviors like the inability to sit, pacing,
hand-wringing, pulling or rubbing of the skin, clothing, or other
objects) or psychomotor retardation (the person talks and moves
slowly, for example, talking softly, very little, or in a monotone);
fatigue or loss of energy;
feelings of worthlessness or guilt;
difficulty concentrating and indecisiveness; and
suicidal ideation{: data-type=“term”}: thoughts of death (not
just fear of dying), thinking about or planning suicide, or making an
actual suicide attempt.
Major depressive disorder is considered episodic: its symptoms are
typically present at their full magnitude for a certain period of time
and then gradually abate. Approximately 50%–60% of people who experience
an episode of major depressive disorder will have a second episode at
some point in the future; those who have had two episodes have a 70%
chance of having a third episode, and those who have had three episodes
have a 90% chance of having a fourth episode (Rothschild, 1999).
Although the episodes can last for months, a majority a people diagnosed
with this condition (around 70%) recover within a year. However, a
substantial number do not recover; around 12% show serious signs of
impairment associated with major depressive disorder after 5 years
(Boland & Keller, 2009). In the long-term, many who do recover will
still show minor symptoms that fluctuate in their severity (Judd, 2012).
Major depressive disorder is a serious and incapacitating condition that
can have a devastating effect on the quality of one’s life. The person
suffering from this disorder lives a profoundly miserable existence that
often results in unavailability for work or education, abandonment of
promising careers, and lost wages; occasionally, the condition requires
hospitalization. The majority of those with major depressive disorder
report having faced some kind of discrimination, and many report that
having received such treatment has stopped them from initiating close
relationships, applying for jobs for which they are qualified, and
applying for education or training (Lasalvia et al., 2013). Major
depressive disorder also takes a toll on health. Depression is a risk
factor for the development of heart disease in healthy patients, as well
as adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with preexisting heart
disease (Whooley, 2006).
Major depressive disorder is often referred to as the common cold of
psychiatric disorders. Around 6.6% of the U.S. population experiences
major depressive disorder each year; 16.9% will experience the disorder
during their lifetime (Kessler & Wang, 2009). It is more common among
women than among men, affecting approximately 20% of women and 13% of
men at some point in their life (National Comorbidity Survey, 2007). The
greater risk among women is not accounted for by a tendency to report
symptoms or to seek help more readily, suggesting that gender
differences in the rates of major depressive disorder may reflect
biological and gender-related environmental experiences (Kessler, 2003).
Lifetime rates of major depressive disorder tend to be highest in North
and South America, Europe, and Australia; they are considerably lower in
Asian countries (Hasin, Fenton, & Weissman, 2011). The rates of major
depressive disorder are higher among younger age cohorts than among
older cohorts, perhaps because people in younger age cohorts are more
willing to admit depression (Kessler & Wang, 2009).
A number of risk factors are associated with major depressive disorder:
unemployment (including homemakers); earning less than $20,000 per year;
living in urban areas; or being separated, divorced, or widowed (Hasin
et al., 2011). Comorbid disorders include anxiety disorders and
substance abuse disorders (Kessler & Wang, 2009).
The DSM-5 lists several different subtypes of depression. These
subtypes—what the DSM-5 refer to as specifiers—are not specific
disorders; rather, they are labels used to indicate specific patterns of
symptoms or to specify certain periods of time in which the symptoms may
be present. One subtype, seasonal pattern{: data-type=“term”},
applies to situations in which a person experiences the symptoms of
major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year (e.g.,
fall or winter). In everyday language, people often refer to this
subtype as the winter blues.
Another subtype, peripartum onset{: data-type=“term”} (commonly
referred to as postpartum depression{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis}), applies to women who experience major depression during
pregnancy or in the four weeks following the birth of their child (APA,
2013). These women often feel very anxious and may even have panic
attacks. They may feel guilty, agitated, and be weepy. They may not want
to hold or care for their newborn, even in cases in which the pregnancy
was desired and intended. In extreme cases, the mother may have feelings
of wanting to harm her child or herself. In a horrific illustration, a
woman named Andrea Yates, who suffered from extreme peripartum-onset
depression (as well as other mental illnesses), drowned her five
children in a bathtub (Roche, 2002). Most women with peripartum-onset
depression do not physically harm their children, but most do have
difficulty being adequate caregivers (Fields, 2010). A surprisingly high
number of women experience symptoms of peripartum-onset depression. A
study of 10,000 women who had recently given birth found that 14%
screened positive for peripartum-onset depression, and that nearly 20%
reported having thoughts of wanting to harm themselves (Wisner et al.,
2013).
People with persistent depressive disorder{: data-type=“term”}
(previously known as dysthymia) experience depressed moods most of the
day nearly every day for at least two years, as well as at least two of
the other symptoms of major depressive disorder. People with persistent
depressive disorder are chronically sad and melancholy, but do not meet
all the criteria for major depression. However, episodes of full-blown
major depressive disorder can occur during persistent depressive
disorder (APA, 2013).
A person with bipolar disorder{: data-type=“term”} (commonly known
as manic depressionpastehere) often
experiences mood states that vacillate between depression and mania;
that is, the person’s mood is said to alternate from one emotional
extreme to the other (in contrast to unipolar, which indicates a
persistently sad mood).
To be diagnosed with bipolar disorder, a person must have experienced a
manic episode at least once in his life; although major depressive
episodes are common in bipolar disorder, they are not required for a
diagnosis (APA, 2013). According to the DSM-5, a manic episode{:
data-type=“term”} is characterized as a “distinct period of abnormally
and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally
and persistently increased activity or energy lasting at least one
week,” that lasts most of the time each day (APA, 2013, p. 124). During
a manic episode, some experience a mood that is almost euphoric and
become excessively talkative, sometimes spontaneously starting
conversations with strangers; others become excessively irritable and
complain or make hostile comments. The person may talk loudly and
rapidly, exhibiting flight of ideas{: data-type=“term”}, abruptly
switching from one topic to another. These individuals are easily
distracted, which can make a conversation very difficult. They may
exhibit grandiosity, in which they experience inflated but unjustified
self-esteem and self-confidence. For example, they might quit a job in
order to “strike it rich” in the stock market, despite lacking the
knowledge, experience, and capital for such an endeavor. They may take
on several tasks at the same time (e.g., several time-consuming projects
at work) and yet show little, if any, need for sleep; some may go for
days without sleep. Patients may also recklessly engage in pleasurable
activities that could have harmful consequences, including spending
sprees, reckless driving, making foolish investments, excessive
gambling, or engaging in sexual encounters with strangers (APA, 2013).
During a manic episode, individuals usually feel as though they are not
ill and do not need treatment. However, the reckless behaviors that
often accompany these episodes—which can be antisocial, illegal, or
physically threatening to others—may require involuntary hospitalization
(APA, 2013). Some patients with bipolar disorder will experience a
rapid-cycling subtype, which is characterized by at least four manic
episodes (or some combination of at least four manic and major
depressive episodes) within one year.
See also
In the 1997 independent film Sweetheart, actress Janeane Garofalo
plays the part of Jasmine, a young woman with bipolar disorder. Watch
this firsthand
account from a
person living with bipolar disorder.
Bipolar disorder is considerably less frequent than major depressive
disorder. In the United States, 1 out of every 167 people meets the
criteria for bipolar disorder each year, and 1 out of 100 meet the
criteria within their lifetime (Merikangas et al., 2011). The rates are
higher in men than in women, and about half of those with this disorder
report onset before the age of 25 (Merikangas et al., 2011). Around 90%
of those with bipolar disorder have a comorbid disorder, most often an
anxiety disorder or a substance abuse problem. Unfortunately, close to
half of the people suffering from bipolar disorder do not receive
treatment (Merikangas & Tohen, 2011). Suicide rates are extremely high
among those with bipolar disorder: around 36% of individuals with this
disorder attempt suicide at least once in their lifetime (Novick,
Swartz, & Frank, 2010), and between 15%–19% complete suicide (Newman,
2004).
Mood disorders have been shown to have a strong genetic and biological
basis. Relatives of those with major depressive disorder have double the
risk of developing major depressive disorder, whereas relatives of
patients with bipolar disorder have over nine times the risk (Merikangas
et al., 2011). The rate of concordance for major depressive disorder is
higher among identical twins than fraternal twins (50% vs. 38%,
respectively), as is that of bipolar disorder (67% vs. 16%,
respectively), suggesting that genetic factors play a stronger role in
bipolar disorder than in major depressive disorder (Merikangas et
al. 2011).
People with mood disorders often have imbalances in certain
neurotransmitters, particularly norepinephrine and serotonin (Thase,
2009). These neurotransmitters are important regulators of the bodily
functions that are disrupted in mood disorders, including appetite, sex
drive, sleep, arousal, and mood. Medications that are used to treat
major depressive disorder typically boost serotonin and norepinephrine
activity, whereas lithium—used in the treatment of bipolar
disorder—blocks norepinephrine activity at the synapses
([link]).
{: #Figure_15_07_Neurons}
Depression is linked to abnormal activity in several regions of the
brain (Fitzgerald, Laird, Maller, & Daskalakis, 2008) including those
important in assessing the emotional significance of stimuli and
experiencing emotions (amygdala), and in regulating and controlling
emotions (like the prefrontal cortex, or PFC) (LeMoult, Castonguay,
Joormann, & McAleavey, 2013). Depressed individuals show elevated
amygdala activity (Drevets, Bogers, & Raichle, 2002), especially when
presented with negative emotional stimuli, such as photos of sad faces
([link]) (Surguladze et al., 2005).
Interestingly, heightened amygdala activation to negative emotional
stimuli among depressed persons occurs even when stimuli are presented
outside of conscious awareness (Victor, Furey, Fromm, Öhman, & Drevets,
2010), and it persists even after the negative emotional stimuli are no
longer present (Siegle, Thompson, Carter, Steinhauer, & Thase, 2007).
Additionally, depressed individuals exhibit less activation in the
prefrontal, particularly on the left side (Davidson, Pizzagalli, &
Nitschke, 2009). Because the PFC can dampen amygdala activation, thereby
enabling one to suppress negative emotions (Phan et al., 2005),
decreased activation in certain regions of the PFC may inhibit its
ability to override negative emotions that might then lead to more
negative mood states (Davidson et al., 2009). These findings suggest
that depressed persons are more prone to react to emotionally negative
stimuli, yet have greater difficulty controlling these reactions.
{: #Figure_15_07_SadFace}
Since the 1950s, researchers have noted that depressed individuals have
abnormal levels of cortisol, a stress hormone released into the blood by
the neuroendocrine system during times of stress (Mackin & Young, 2004).
When cortisol is released, the body initiates a fight-or-flight response
in reaction to a threat or danger. Many people with depression show
elevated cortisol levels (Holsboer & Ising, 2010), especially those
reporting a history of early life trauma such as the loss of a parent or
abuse during childhood (Baes, Tofoli, Martins, & Juruena, 2012). Such
findings raise the question of whether high cortisol levels are a cause
or a consequence of depression. High levels of cortisol are a risk
factor for future depression (Halligan, Herbert, Goodyer, & Murray,
2007), and cortisol activates activity in the amygdala while
deactivating activity in the PFC (McEwen, 2005)—both brain disturbances
are connected to depression. Thus, high cortisol levels may have a
causal effect on depression, as well as on its brain function
abnormalities (van Praag, 2005). Also, because stress results in
increased cortisol release (Michaud, Matheson, Kelly, Anisman, 2008), it
is equally reasonable to assume that stress may precipitate depression.
Indeed, it has long been believed that stressful life events can trigger
depression, and research has consistently supported this conclusion
(Mazure, 1998). Stressful life events include significant losses, such
as death of a loved one, divorce or separation, and serious health and
money problems; life events such as these often precede the onset of
depressive episodes (Brown & Harris, 1989). In particular, exit
events—instances in which an important person departs (e.g., a death,
divorce or separation, or a family member leaving home)—often occur
prior to an episode (Paykel, 2003). Exit events are especially likely to
trigger depression if these happenings occur in a way that humiliates or
devalues the individual. For example, people who experience the breakup
of a relationship initiated by the other person develop major depressive
disorder at a rate more than 2 times that of people who experience the
death of a loved one (Kendler, Hettema, Butera, Gardner, & Prescott,
2003).
Likewise, individuals who are exposed to traumatic stress during
childhood—such as separation from a parent, family turmoil, and
maltreatment (physical or sexual abuse)—are at a heightened risk of
developing depression at any point in their lives (Kessler, 1997). A
recent review of 16 studies involving over 23,000 subjects concluded
that those who experience childhood maltreatment are more than 2 times
as likely to develop recurring and persistent depression (Nanni, Uher, &
Danese, 2012).
Of course, not everyone who experiences stressful life events or
childhood adversities succumbs to depression—indeed, most do not.
Clearly, a diathesis-stress interpretation of major depressive disorder,
in which certain predispositions or vulnerability factors influence
one’s reaction to stress, would seem logical. If so, what might such
predispositions be? A study by Caspi and others (2003) suggests that an
alteration in a specific gene that regulates serotonin{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} (the 5-HTTLPR gene) might be one culprit.
These investigators found that people who experienced several stressful
life events were significantly more likely to experience episodes of
major depression if they carried one or two short versions of this gene
than if they carried two long versions. Those who carried one or two
short versions of the 5-HTTLPR gene were unlikely to experience an
episode, however, if they had experienced few or no stressful life
events. Numerous studies have replicated these findings, including
studies of people who experienced maltreatment during childhood (Goodman
& Brand, 2009). In a recent investigation conducted in the United
Kingdom (Brown & Harris, 2013), researchers found that childhood
maltreatment before age 9 elevated the risk of chronic adult depression
(a depression episode lasting for at least 12 months) among those
individuals having one (LS) or two (SS) short versions of the 5-HTTLPR
gene ([link]). Childhood
maltreatment did not increase the risk for chronic depression for those
have two long (LL) versions of this gene. Thus, genetic vulnerability
may be one mechanism through which stress potentially leads to
depression.
Cognitive theories of depression take the view that depression is
triggered by negative thoughts, interpretations, self-evaluations, and
expectations (Joormann, 2009). These diathesis-stress models{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} propose that depression is triggered by a
“cognitive vulnerability” (negative and maladaptive thinking) and by
precipitating stressful life events (Gotlib & Joormann, 2010). Perhaps
the most well-known cognitive theory of depression was developed in the
1960s by psychiatrist Aaron Beck, based on clinical observations and
supported by research (Beck, 2008). Beck theorized that depression-prone
people possess depressive schemas, or mental predispositions to think
about most things in a negative way (Beck, 1976). Depressive schemas
contain themes of loss, failure, rejection, worthlessness, and
inadequacy, and may develop early in childhood in response to adverse
experiences, then remain dormant until they are activated by stressful
or negative life events. Depressive schemas prompt dysfunctional and
pessimistic thoughts about the self, the world, and the future. Beck
believed that this dysfunctional style of thinking is maintained by
cognitive biases, or errors in how we process information about
ourselves, which lead us to focus on negative aspects of experiences,
interpret things negatively, and block positive memories (Beck, 2008). A
person whose depressive schema consists of a theme of rejection might be
overly attentive to social cues of rejection (more likely to notice
another’s frown), and he might interpret this cue as a sign of rejection
and automatically remember past incidents of rejection. Longitudinal
studies have supported Beck’s theory, in showing that a preexisting
tendency to engage in this negative, self-defeating style of
thinking—when combined with life stress—over time predicts the onset of
depression (Dozois & Beck, 2008). Cognitive therapies for depression,
aimed at changing a depressed person’s negative thinking, were developed
as an expansion of this theory (Beck, 1976).
Another cognitive theory of depression, hopelessness theory{:
data-type=“term”}, postulates that a particular style of negative
thinking leads to a sense of hopelessness, which then leads to
depression (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989). According to this
theory, hopelessness is an expectation that unpleasant outcomes will
occur or that desired outcomes will not occur, and there is nothing one
can do to prevent such outcomes. A key assumption of this theory is that
hopelessness stems from a tendency to perceive negative life events as
having stable (“It’s never going to change”) and global (“It’s going to
affect my whole life”) causes, in contrast to unstable (“It’s fixable”)
and specific (“It applies only to this particular situation”) causes,
especially if these negative life events occur in important life realms,
such as relationships, academic achievement, and the like. Suppose a
student who wishes to go to law school does poorly on an admissions
test. If the student infers negative life events as having stable and
global causes, she may believe that her poor performance has a stable
and global cause (“I lack intelligence, and it’s going to prevent me
from ever finding a meaningful career”), as opposed to an unstable and
specific cause (“I was sick the day of the exam, so my low score was a
fluke”). Hopelessness theory predicts that people who exhibit this
cognitive style in response to undesirable life events will view such
events as having negative implications for their future and self-worth,
thereby increasing the likelihood of hopelessness—the primary cause of
depression (Abramson et al., 1989). One study testing hopelessness
theory measured the tendency to make negative inferences for bad life
effects in participants who were experiencing uncontrollable stressors.
Over the ensuing six months, those with scores reflecting high cognitive
vulnerability were 7 times more likely to develop depression compared to
those with lower scores (Kleim, Gonzalo, & Ehlers, 2011).
A third cognitive theory of depression focuses on how people’s thoughts
about their distressed moods—depressed symptoms in particular—can
increase the risk and duration of depression. This theory, which focuses
on rumination in the development of depression, was first described in
the late 1980s to explain the higher rates of depression in women than
in men (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987). Rumination{: data-type=“term”} is
the repetitive and passive focus on the fact that one is depressed and
dwelling on depressed symptoms, rather that distracting one’s self from
the symptoms or attempting to address them in an active, problem-solving
manner (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). When people ruminate, they have thoughts
such as “Why am I so unmotivated? I just can’t get going. I’m never
going to get my work done feeling this way” (Nolen-Hoeksema & Hilt,
2009, p. 393). Women are more likely than men to ruminate when they are
sad or depressed (Butler & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1994), and the tendency to
ruminate is associated with increases in depression symptoms
(Nolen-Hoeksema, Larson, & Grayson, 1999), heightened risk of major
depressive episodes (Abela & Hankin, 2011), and chronicity of such
episodes (Robinson & Alloy, 2003)
For some people with mood disorders, the extreme emotional pain they
experience becomes unendurable. Overwhelmed by hopelessness, devastated
by incapacitating feelings of worthlessness, and burdened with the
inability to adequately cope with such feelings, they may consider
suicide to be a reasonable way out. Suicide{: data-type=“term”},
defined by the CDC as “death caused by self-directed injurious behavior
with any intent to die as the result of the behavior” (CDC, 2013a), in a
sense represents an outcome of several things going wrong all at the
same time Crosby, Ortega, & Melanson, 2011). Not only must the person be
biologically or psychologically vulnerable, but he must also have the
means to perform the suicidal act, and he must lack the necessary
protective factors (e.g., social support from friends and family,
religion, coping skills, and problem-solving skills) that provide
comfort and enable one to cope during times of crisis or great
psychological pain (Berman, 2009).
Suicide is not listed as a disorder in the DSM-5; however, suffering
from a mental disorder—especially a mood disorder—poses the greatest
risk for suicide. Around 90% of those who complete suicides have a
diagnosis of at least one mental disorder, with mood disorders being the
most frequent (Fleischman, Bertolote, Belfer, & Beautrais, 2005). In
fact, the association between major depressive disorder and suicide is
so strong that one of the criteria for the disorder is thoughts of
suicide, as discussed above (APA, 2013).
Suicide rates can be difficult to interpret because some deaths that
appear to be accidental may in fact be acts of suicide (e.g., automobile
crash). Nevertheless, investigations into U.S. suicide rates have
uncovered these facts:
Suicide was the 10th leading cause of death for all ages in 2010
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2012).
There were 38,364 suicides in 2010 in the United States—an average of
105 each day (CDC, 2012).
Suicide among males is 4 times higher than among females and accounts
for 79% of all suicides; firearms are the most commonly used method
of suicide for males, whereas poisoning is the most commonly used
method for females (CDC, 2012).
From 1991 to 2003, suicide rates were consistently higher among those
65 years and older. Since 2001, however, suicide rates among those
ages 25–64 have risen consistently, and, since 2006, suicide rates
have been greater for those ages 65 and older (CDC, 2013b). This
increase in suicide rates among middle-aged Americans has prompted
concern in some quarters that baby boomers (individuals born between
1946–1964) who face economic worry and easy access to prescription
medication may be particularly vulnerable to suicide (Parker-Pope,
2013).
The highest rates of suicide within the United States are among
American Indians/Alaskan natives and Non-Hispanic Whites (CDC,
2013b).
Suicide rates vary across the United States, with the highest rates
consistently found in the mountain states of the west (Alaska,
Montana, Nevada, Wyoming, Colorado, and Idaho) (Berman, 2009).
Contrary to popular belief, suicide rates peak during the springtime
(April and May), not during the holiday season or winter. In fact,
suicide rates are generally lowest during the winter months (Postolache
et al., 2010).
Suicidal risk is especially high among people with substance abuse
problems. Individuals with alcohol dependence are at 10 times greater
risk for suicide than the general population (Wilcox, Conner, & Caine,
2004). The risk of suicidal behavior is especially high among those who
have made a prior suicide attempt. Among those who attempt suicide, 16%
make another attempt within a year and over 21% make another attempt
within four years (Owens, Horrocks, & House, 2002). Suicidal individuals
may be at high risk for terminating their life if they have a lethal
means in which to act, such as a firearm in the home (Brent & Bridge,
2003). Withdrawal from social relationships, feeling as though one is a
burden to others, and engaging in reckless and risk-taking behaviors may
be precursors to suicidal behavior (Berman, 2009). A sense of entrapment
or feeling unable to escape one’s miserable feelings or external
circumstances (e.g., an abusive relationship with no perceived way out)
predicts suicidal behavior (O’Connor, Smyth, Ferguson, Ryan, & Williams,
2013). Tragically, reports of suicides among adolescents following
instances of cyberbullying have emerged in recent years. In one
widely-publicized case a few years ago, Phoebe Prince, a 15-year-old
Massachusetts high school student, committed suicide following incessant
harassment and taunting from her classmates via texting and Facebook
(McCabe, 2010).
Suicides can have a contagious effect on people. For example, another’s
suicide, especially that of a family member, heightens one’s risk of
suicide (Agerbo, Nordentoft, & Mortensen, 2002). Additionally,
widely-publicized suicides tend to trigger copycat suicides in some
individuals. One study examining suicide statistics in the United States
from 1947–1967 found that the rates of suicide skyrocketed for the first
month after a suicide story was printed on the front page of the New
York Times (Phillips, 1974). Austrian researchers found a significant
increase in the number of suicides by firearms in the three weeks
following extensive reports in Austria’s largest newspaper of a
celebrity suicide by gun (Etzersdorfer, Voracek, & Sonneck, 2004). A
review of 42 studies concluded that media coverage of celebrity suicides
is more than 14 times more likely to trigger copycat suicides than is
coverage of non-celebrity suicides (Stack, 2000). This review also
demonstrated that the medium of coverage is important: televised stories
are considerably less likely to prompt a surge in suicides than are
newspaper stories. Research suggests that a trend appears to be emerging
whereby people use online social media to leave suicide notes, although
it is not clear to what extent suicide notes on such media might induce
copycat suicides (Ruder, Hatch, Ampanozi, Thali, & Fischer, 2011).
Nevertheless, it is reasonable to conjecture that suicide notes left by
individuals on social media may influence the decisions of other
vulnerable people who encounter them (Luxton, June, & Fairall, 2012).
One possible contributing factor in suicide is brain chemistry.
Contemporary neurological research shows that disturbances in the
functioning of serotoninpastehere are
linked to suicidal behavior (Pompili et al., 2010). Low levels of
serotonin predict future suicide attempts and suicide completions, and
low levels have been observed post-mortem among suicide victims (Mann,
2003). Serotonin dysfunction, as noted earlier, is also known to play an
important role in depression; low levels of serotonin have also been
linked to aggression and impulsivity (Stanley et al., 2000). The
combination of these three characteristics constitutes a potential
formula for suicide—especially violent suicide. A classic study
conducted during the 1970s found that patients with major depressive
disorder who had very low levels of serotonin attempted suicide more
frequently and more violently than did patients with higher levels
(Asberg, Thorén, Träskman, Bertilsson, & Ringberger, 1976; Mann, 2003).
Suicidal thoughts, plans, and even off-hand remarks (“I might kill
myself this afternoon”) should always be taken extremely seriously.
People who contemplate terminating their life need immediate help. Below
are links to two excellent websites that contain resources (including
hotlines) for people who are struggling with suicidal ideation, have
loved ones who may be suicidal, or who have lost loved ones to suicide:
http://www.afsp.org and http://suicidology.org.
Mood disorders are those in which the person experiences severe
disturbances in mood and emotion. They include depressive disorders and
bipolar and related disorders. Depressive disorders include major
depressive disorder, which is characterized by episodes of profound
sadness and loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities and other
associated features, and persistent depressive disorder, which marked by
a chronic state of sadness. Bipolar disorder is characterized by mood
states that vacillate between sadness and euphoria; a diagnosis of
bipolar disorder requires experiencing at least one manic episode, which
is defined as a period of extreme euphoria, irritability, and increased
activity. Mood disorders appear to have a genetic component, with
genetic factors playing a more prominent role in bipolar disorder than
in depression. Both biological and psychological factors are important
in the development of depression. People who suffer from mental health
problems, especially mood disorders, are at heightened risk for suicide.
Question
Common symptoms of major depressive disorder include all of the
following except ________.
periods of extreme elation and euphoria
difficulty concentrating and making decisions
loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities
psychomotor agitation and retardation {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Suicide rates are ________ among men than among women, and they
are ________ during the winter holiday season than during the
spring months.
Describe several of the factors associated with suicide.
The risk of suicide is high among people with mental health
problems, including mood disorders and substance abuse problems.
The risk is also high among those who have made a prior suicide
attempt and who have lethal means to commit suicide. Rates of
suicide are higher among men and during the springtime, and they
are higher in the mountain states of the west than in other
regions of the United States. Research has also shown that
suicides can have a “contagious” effect on people, and that it is
associated with serotonin dysfunction.
Think of someone you know who seems to have a tendency to make
negative, self-defeating explanations for negative life events.
How might this tendency lead to future problems? What steps do you
think could be taken to change this thinking style?
cognitive theory of depression proposing that a style of thinking
that perceives negative life events as having stable and global
causes leads to a sense of hopelessness and then to depression ^
period in which an individual experiences mania, characterized by
extremely cheerful and euphoric mood, excessive talkativeness,
irritability, increased activity levels, and other symptoms ^
one of a group of disorders characterized by severe disturbances
in mood and emotions; the categories of mood disorders listed in
the DSM-5 are bipolar and related disorders and depressive
disorders ^
subtype of depression that applies to women who experience an
episode of major depression either during pregnancy or in the four
weeks following childbirth ^
death caused by intentional, self-directed injurious behavior
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Describe the main
features and prevalence of obsessive-compulsive disorder, body
dysmorphic disorder, and hoarding disorder * Understand some of the
factors in the development of obsessive-compulsive disorder
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders{: data-type=“term”} are
a group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive,
unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors. Many of us experience
unwanted thoughts from time to time (e.g., craving double cheeseburgers
when dieting), and many of us engage in repetitive behaviors on occasion
(e.g., pacing when nervous). However, obsessive-compulsive and related
disorders elevate the unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviors to a
status so intense that these cognitions and activities disrupt daily
life. Included in this category are obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD),
body dysmorphic disorder, and hoarding disorder.
People with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD){:
data-type=“term”} experience thoughts and urges that are intrusive and
unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors
or mental acts (compulsions). A person with this disorder might, for
example, spend hours each day washing his hands or constantly checking
and rechecking to make sure that a stove, faucet, or light has been
turned off.
Obsessions are more than just unwanted thoughts that seem to randomly
jump into our head from time to time, such as recalling an insensitive
remark a coworker made recently, and they are more significant than
day-to-day worries we might have, such as justifiable concerns about
being laid off from a job. Rather, obsessions are characterized as
persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are
highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing (APA, 2013). Common
obsessionspastehere include concerns about
germs and contamination, doubts (“Did I turn the water off?”), order and
symmetry (“I need all the spoons in the tray to be arranged a certain
way”), and urges that are aggressive or lustful. Usually, the person
knows that such thoughts and urges are irrational and thus tries to
suppress or ignore them, but has an extremely difficult time doing so.
These obsessive symptoms sometimes overlap, such that someone might have
both contamination and aggressive obsessions (Abramowitz & Siqueland,
2013).
Compulsions are repetitive and ritualistic acts that are typically
carried out primarily as a means to minimize the distress that
obsessions trigger or to reduce the likelihood of a feared event (APA,
2013). Compulsionspastehere often include
such behaviors as repeated and extensive hand washing, cleaning,
checking (e.g., that a door is locked), and ordering (e.g., lining up
all the pencils in a particular way), and they also include such mental
acts as counting, praying, or reciting something to oneself
([link]). Compulsions characteristic of OCD are
not performed out of pleasure, nor are they connected in a realistic way
to the source of the distress or feared event. Approximately 2.3% of the
U.S. population will experience OCD in their lifetime (Ruscio, Stein,
Chiu, & Kessler, 2010) and, if left untreated, OCD tends to be a chronic
condition creating lifelong interpersonal and psychological problems
(Norberg, Calamari, Cohen, & Riemann, 2008).
An individual with body dysmorphic disorder{: data-type=“term”} is
preoccupied with a perceived flaw in her physical appearance that is
either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people (APA, 2013).
These perceived physical defects cause the person to think she is
unattractive, ugly, hideous, or deformed. These preoccupations can focus
on any bodily area, but they typically involve the skin, face, or hair.
The preoccupation with imagined physical flaws drives the person to
engage in repetitive and ritualistic behavioral and mental acts, such as
constantly looking in the mirror, trying to hide the offending body
part, comparisons with others, and, in some extreme cases, cosmetic
surgery (Phillips, 2005). An estimated 2.4% of the adults in the United
States meet the criteria for body dysmorphic disorder, with slightly
higher rates in women than in men (APA, 2013).
Although hoarding was traditionally considered to be a symptom of OCD,
considerable evidence suggests that hoarding represents an entirely
different disorder (Mataix-Cols et al., 2010). People with hoarding
disorder{: data-type=“term”} cannot bear to part with personal
possessions, regardless of how valueless or useless these possessions
are. As a result, these individuals accumulate excessive amounts of
usually worthless items that clutter their living areas
([link]). Often, the quantity of cluttered
items is so excessive that the person is unable use his kitchen, or
sleep in his bed. People who suffer from this disorder have great
difficulty parting with items because they believe the items might be of
some later use, or because they form a sentimental attachment to the
items (APA, 2013). Importantly, a diagnosis of hoarding disorder is made
only if the hoarding is not caused by another medical condition and if
the hoarding is not a symptom of another disorder (e.g., schizophrenia)
(APA, 2013).
The results of family and twin studies suggest that OCD has a moderate
genetic component. The disorder is five times more frequent in the
first-degree relatives of people with OCD than in people without the
disorder (Nestadt et al., 2000). Additionally, the concordance rate of
OCD among identical twins is around 57%; however, the concordance rate
for fraternal twins is 22% (Bolton, Rijsdijk, O’Connor, Perrin, & Eley,
2007). Studies have implicated about two dozen potential genes that may
be involved in OCD; these genes regulate the function of three
neurotransmitters: serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate (Pauls, 2010).
Many of these studies included small sample sizes and have yet to be
replicated. Thus, additional research needs to be done in this area.
A brain region that is believed to play a critical role in OCD is the
orbitofrontal cortex{: data-type=“term”} (Kopell & Greenberg,
2008), an area of the frontal lobe involved in learning and
decision-making (Rushworth, Noonan, Boorman, Walton, & Behrens, 2011)
([link]). In people with OCD, the
orbitofrontal cortex becomes especially hyperactive when they are
provoked with tasks in which, for example, they are asked to look at a
photo of a toilet or of pictures hanging crookedly on a wall (Simon,
Kaufmann, Müsch, Kischkel, & Kathmann, 2010). The orbitofrontal cortex
is part of a series of brain regions that, collectively, is called the
OCD circuit; this circuit consists of several interconnected regions
that influence the perceived emotional value of stimuli and the
selection of both behavioral and cognitive responses (Graybiel & Rauch,
2000). As with the orbitofrontal cortex, other regions of the OCD
circuit show heightened activity during symptom provocation (Rotge et
al., 2008), which suggests that abnormalities in these regions may
produce the symptoms of OCD (Saxena, Bota, & Brody, 2001). Consistent
with this explanation, people with OCD show a substantially higher
degree of connectivity of the orbitofrontal cortex and other regions of
the OCD circuit than do those without OCD (Beucke et al., 2013).
{:
#Figure_15_05_Orbito}
The findings discussed above were based on imaging studies, and they
highlight the potential importance of brain dysfunction in OCD. However,
one important limitation of these findings is the inability to explain
differences in obsessions and compulsions. Another limitation is that
the correlational relationship between neurological abnormalities and
OCD symptoms cannot imply causation (Abramowitz & Siqueland, 2013).
Conditioning and OCD
The symptoms of OCD have been theorized to be learned responses,
acquired and sustained as the result of a combination of two forms of
learning: classical conditioning{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} and operant conditioning{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} (Mowrer, 1960; Steinmetz, Tracy, & Green, 2001).
Specifically, the acquisition of OCD may occur first as the result of
classical conditioning, whereby a neutral stimulus becomes associated
with an unconditioned stimulus that provokes anxiety or distress.
When an individual has acquired this association, subsequent
encounters with the neutral stimulus trigger anxiety, including
obsessive thoughts; the anxiety and obsessive thoughts (which are now
a conditioned response) may persist until she identifies some
strategy to relieve it. Relief may take the form of a ritualistic
behavior or mental activity that, when enacted repeatedly, reduces
the anxiety. Such efforts to relieve anxiety constitute an example of
negative reinforcement (a form of operant conditioning). Recall from
the chapter on learning that negative reinforcement involves the
strengthening of behavior through its ability to remove something
unpleasant or aversive. Hence, compulsive acts observed in OCD may be
sustained because they are negatively reinforcing, in the sense that
they reduce anxiety triggered by a conditioned stimulus.
Suppose an individual with OCD experiences obsessive thoughts about
germs, contamination, and disease whenever she encounters a doorknob.
What might have constituted a viable unconditioned stimulus? Also,
what would constitute the conditioned stimulus, unconditioned
response, and conditioned response? What kinds of compulsive
behaviors might we expect, and how do they reinforce themselves? What
is decreased? Additionally, and from the standpoint of learning
theory, how might the symptoms of OCD be treated successfully?
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are a group of DSM-5
disorders that overlap somewhat in that they each involve intrusive
thoughts and/or repetitive behaviors. Perhaps the most recognized of
these disorders is obsessive-compulsive disorder, in which a person is
obsessed with unwanted, unpleasant thoughts and/or compulsively engages
in repetitive behaviors or mental acts, perhaps as a way of coping with
the obsessions. Body dysmorphic disorder is characterized by the
individual becoming excessively preoccupied with one or more perceived
flaws in his physical appearance that are either nonexistent or
unnoticeable to others. Preoccupation with the perceived physical
defects causes the person to experience significant anxiety regarding
how he appears to others. Hoarding disorder is characterized by
persistent difficulty in discarding or parting with objects, regardless
of their actual value, often resulting in the accumulation of items that
clutter and congest her living area.
Question
Which of the following best illustrates a compulsion?
mentally counting backward from 1,000
persistent fear of germs
thoughts of harming a neighbor
falsely believing that a spouse has been cheating {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Research indicates that the symptoms of OCD ________.
are similar to the symptoms of panic disorder
are triggered by low levels of stress hormones
are related to hyperactivity in the orbitofrontal cortex
are reduced if people are asked to view photos of stimuli that
trigger the symptoms {: type=“a”}
Discuss the common elements of each of the three disorders covered
in this section: obsessive-compulsive disorder, body dysmorphic
disorder, and hoarding disorder.
Each of the three disorders is characterized by repetitive
thoughts and urges, as well as an uncontrollable need to engage in
repetitive behavior and mental acts. For example, repetitive
thoughts include concerns over contamination (OCD), imaged
physical defects (body dysmorphic disorder), and over discarding
one’s possessions (hoarding disorder). An uncontrollable need to
engage in repetitive behaviors and mental acts include persistent
hand-washing (OCD), constantly looking in the mirror (body
dysmorphic disorder), and engaging in efforts to acquire new
possessions (hoarding disorder).
characterized by the tendency to experience intrusive and unwanted
thoughts and urges (obsession) and/or the need to engage in
repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions) in response to
the unwanted thoughts and urges ^
area of the frontal lobe involved in learning and decision-making
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Distinguish
normal anxiety from pathological anxiety * List and describe the
major anxiety disorders, including their main features and prevalence
* Describe basic psychological and biological factors that are
suspected to be important in the etiology of anxiety disorder
Everybody experiences anxiety from time to time. Although anxiety is
closely related to fear, the two states possess important differences.
Fear involves an instantaneous reaction to an imminent threat, whereas
anxiety involves apprehension, avoidance, and cautiousness regarding a
potential threat, danger, or other negative event (Craske, 1999). While
anxiety is unpleasant to most people, it is important to our health,
safety, and well-being. Anxiety motivates us to take actions—such as
preparing for exams, watching our weight, showing up to work on
time—that enable us to avert potential future problems. Anxiety also
motivates us to avoid certain things—such as running up debts and
engaging in illegal activities—that could lead to future trouble. Most
individuals’ level and duration of anxiety approximates the magnitude of
the potential threat they face. For example, suppose a single woman in
her late 30s who wishes to marry is concerned about the possibility of
having to settle for a spouse who is less attractive and educated than
desired. This woman likely would experience anxiety of greater intensity
and duration than would a 21-year-old college junior who is having
trouble finding a date for the annual social. Some people, however,
experience anxiety that is excessive, persistent, and greatly out of
proportion to the actual threat; if one’s anxiety has a disruptive
influence on one’s life, this is a strong indicator that the individual
is experiencing an anxiety disorder.
Anxiety disorders{: data-type=“term”} are characterized by
excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances
in behavior (APA, 2013). Although anxiety is universally experienced,
anxiety disorders cause considerable distress. As a group, anxiety
disorders are common: approximately 25%–30% of the U.S. population meets
the criteria for at least one anxiety disorder during their lifetime
(Kessler et al., 2005). Also, these disorders appear to be much more
common in women than they are in men; within a 12-month period, around
23% of women and 14% of men will experience at least one anxiety
disorder (National Comorbidity Survey, 2007). Anxiety disorders are the
most frequently occurring class of mental disorders and are often
comorbid with each other and with other mental disorders (Kessler,
Ruscio, Shear, & Wittchen, 2009).
Phobia is a Greek word that means fear. A person diagnosed with a
specific phobia{: data-type=“term”} (formerly known as simple
phobiapastehere) experiences excessive,
distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or
situation (such as animals, enclosed spaces, elevators, or flying) (APA,
2013). Even though people realize their level of fear and anxiety in
relation to the phobic stimulus is irrational, some people with a
specific phobia may go to great lengths to avoid the phobic stimulus
(the object or situation that triggers the fear and anxiety). Typically,
the fear and anxiety a phobic stimulus elicits is disruptive to the
person’s life. For example, a man with a phobia of flying might refuse
to accept a job that requires frequent air travel, thus negatively
affecting his career. Clinicians who have worked with people who have
specific phobias have encountered many kinds of phobias, some of which
are shown in [link].
Specific Phobias
Phobia
Feared Object or Situation
Acrophobia
heights
Aerophobia
flying
Arachnophobia
spiders
Claustrophobia
enclosed spaces
Cynophobia
dogs
Hematophobia
blood
Ophidiophobia
snakes
Taphophobia
being buried alive
Trypanophobia
injections
Xenophobia
strangers
Specific phobias are common; in the United States, around 12.5% of the
population will meet the criteria for a specific phobia at some point in
their lifetime (Kessler et al., 2005). One type of phobia,
agoraphobia{: data-type=“term”}, is listed in the DSM-5 as a
separate anxiety disorder. Agoraphobia, which literally means “fear of
the marketplace,” is characterized by intense fear, anxiety, and
avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape or
receive help if one experiences symptoms of a panic attack (a state of
extreme anxiety that we will discuss shortly). These situations include
public transportation, open spaces (parking lots), enclosed spaces
(stores), crowds, or being outside the home alone (APA, 2013). About
1.4% of Americans experience agoraphobia during their lifetime (Kessler
et al., 2005).
Many theories suggest that phobias develop through learning. Rachman
(1977) proposed that phobias can be acquired through three major
learning pathways. The first pathway is through classical
conditioningpastehere. As you may recall,
classical conditioning is a form of learning in which a previously
neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that
reflexively elicits an unconditioned response (UCR), eliciting the same
response through its association with the unconditioned stimulus. The
response is called a conditioned response (CR). For example, a child who
has been bitten by a dog may come to fear dogs because of her past
association with pain. In this case, the dog bite is the UCS and the
fear it elicits is the UCR. Because a dog was associated with the bite,
any dog may come to serve as a conditioned stimulus, thereby eliciting
fear; the fear the child experiences around dogs, then, becomes a CR.
The second pathway of phobia acquisition is through vicarious learning,
such as modelingpastehere. For example, a
child who observes his cousin react fearfully to spiders may later
express the same fears, even though spiders have never presented any
danger to him. This phenomenon has been observed in both humans and
nonhuman primates (Olsson & Phelps, 2007). A study of laboratory-reared
monkeys readily acquired a fear of snakes after observing wild-reared
monkeys react fearfully to snakes (Mineka & Cook, 1993).
The third pathway is through verbal transmission or information. For
example, a child whose parents, siblings, friends, and classmates
constantly tell her how disgusting and dangerous snakes are may come to
acquire a fear of snakes.
Interestingly, people are more likely to develop phobias of things that
do not represent much actual danger to themselves, such as animals and
heights, and are less likely to develop phobias toward things that
present legitimate danger in contemporary society, such as motorcycles
and weapons (Öhman & Mineka, 2001). Why might this be so? One theory
suggests that the human brain is evolutionarily predisposed to more
readily associate certain objects or situations with fear (Seligman,
1971). This theory argues that throughout our evolutionary history, our
ancestors associated certain stimuli (e.g., snakes, spiders, heights,
and thunder) with potential danger. As time progressed, the mind has
become adapted to more readily develop fears of these things than of
others. Experimental evidence has consistently demonstrated that
conditioned fears develop more readily to fear-relevant stimuli (images
of snakes and spiders) than to fear-irrelevant stimuli (images of
flowers and berries) (Öhman & Mineka, 2001). Such prepared learning has
also been shown to occur in monkeys. In one study (Cook & Mineka, 1989),
monkeys watched videotapes of model monkeys reacting fearfully to either
fear-relevant stimuli (toy snakes or a toy crocodile) or fear-irrelevant
stimuli (flowers or a toy rabbit). The observer monkeys developed fears
of the fear-relevant stimuli but not the fear-irrelevant stimuli.
Social anxiety disorder{: data-type=“term”} (formerly called
social phobia) is characterized by extreme and persistent fear or
anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could
potentially be evaluated negatively by others (APA, 2013). As with
specific phobias, social anxiety disorder is common in the United
States; a little over 12% of all Americans experience social anxiety
disorder during their lifetime (Kessler et al., 2005).
The heart of the fear and anxiety in social anxiety disorder is the
person’s concern that he may act in a humiliating or embarrassing way,
such as appearing foolish, showing symptoms of anxiety (blushing), or
doing or saying something that might lead to rejection (such as
offending others). The kinds of social situations in which individuals
with social anxiety disorder usually have problems include public
speaking, having a conversation, meeting strangers, eating in
restaurants, and, in some cases, using public restrooms. Although many
people become anxious in social situations like public speaking, the
fear, anxiety, and avoidance experienced in social anxiety disorder are
highly distressing and lead to serious impairments in life. Adults with
this disorder are more likely to experience lower educational attainment
and lower earnings (Katzelnick et al., 2001), perform more poorly at
work and are more likely to be unemployed (Moitra, Beard, Weisberg, &
Keller, 2011), and report greater dissatisfaction with their family
lives, friends, leisure activities, and income (Stein & Kean, 2000).
When people with social anxiety disorder are unable to avoid situations
that provoke anxiety, they typically perform safety behaviors{:
data-type=“term”}: mental or behavioral acts that reduce anxiety in
social situations by reducing the chance of negative social outcomes.
Safety behaviors include avoiding eye contact, rehearsing sentences
before speaking, talking only briefly, and not talking about oneself
(Alden & Bieling, 1998). Other examples of safety behaviors include the
following (Marker, 2013):
assuming roles in social situations that minimize interaction with
others (e.g., taking pictures, setting up equipment, or helping
prepare food)
asking people many questions to keep the focus off of oneself
selecting a position to avoid scrutiny or contact with others
(sitting in the back of the room)
wearing bland, neutral clothes to avoid drawing attention to oneself
avoiding substances or activities that might cause anxiety symptoms
(such as caffeine, warm clothing, and physical exercise)
Although these behaviors are intended to prevent the person with social
anxiety disorder from doing something awkward that might draw criticism,
these actions usually exacerbate the problem because they do not allow
the individual to disconfirm his negative beliefs, often eliciting
rejection and other negative reactions from others (Alden & Bieling,
1998).
People with social anxiety disorder may resort to self-medication, such
as drinking alcohol, as a means to avert the anxiety symptoms they
experience in social situations (Battista & Kocovski, 2010). The use of
alcohol when faced with such situations may become negatively
reinforcing: encouraging individuals with social anxiety disorder to
turn to the substance whenever they experience anxiety symptoms. The
tendency to use alcohol as a coping mechanism for social anxiety,
however, can come with a hefty price tag: a number of large scale
studies have reported a high rate of comorbidity between social anxiety
disorder and alcohol use disorder (Morris, Stewart, & Ham, 2005).
As with specific phobias, it is highly probable that the fears inherent
to social anxiety disorder can develop through conditioning experiences.
For example, a child who is subjected to early unpleasant social
experiences (e.g., bullying at school) may develop negative social
images of herself that become activated later in anxiety-provoking
situations (Hackmann, Clark, & McManus, 2000). Indeed, one study
reported that 92% of a sample of adults with social anxiety disorder
reported a history of severe teasing in childhood, compared to only 35%
of a sample of adults with panic disorder (McCabe, Antony, Summerfeldt,
Liss, & Swinson, 2003).
One of the most well-established risk factors for developing social
anxiety disorder is behavioral inhibition (Clauss & Blackford, 2012).
Behavioral inhibition is thought to be an inherited trait, and it is
characterized by a consistent tendency to show fear and restraint when
presented with unfamiliar people or situations (Kagan, Reznick, &
Snidman, 1988). Behavioral inhibition is displayed very early in life;
behaviorally inhibited toddlers and children respond with great caution
and restraint in unfamiliar situations, and they are often timid,
fearful, and shy around unfamiliar people (Fox, Henderson, Marshall,
Nichols, & Ghera, 2005). A recent statistical review of studies
demonstrated that behavioral inhibition was associated with more than a
sevenfold increase in the risk of development of social anxiety
disorder, demonstrating that behavioral inhibition is a major risk
factor for the disorder (Clauss & Blackford, 2012).
Imagine that you are at the mall one day with your friends and—suddenly
and inexplicably—you begin sweating and trembling, your heart starts
pounding, you have trouble breathing, and you start to feel dizzy and
nauseous. This episode lasts for 10 minutes and is terrifying because
you start to think that you are going to die. When you visit your doctor
the following morning and describe what happened, she tells you that you
have experienced a panic attack ([link]). If
you experience another one of these episodes two weeks later and worry
for a month or more that similar episodes will occur in the future, it
is likely that you have developed panic disorder.
{: #Figure_15_04_Panic}
People with panic disorder{: data-type=“term”} experience
recurrent (more than one) and unexpected panic attacks, along with at
least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks,
worry over the consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in
behavior related to the attacks (e.g., avoidance of exercise or
unfamiliar situations) (APA, 2013). As is the case with other anxiety
disorders, the panic attacks cannot result from the physiological
effects of drugs and other substances, a medical condition, or another
mental disorder. A panic attack{: data-type=“term”} is defined as
a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and
reaches a peak within 10 minutes. Its symptoms include accelerated heart
rate, sweating, trembling, choking sensations, hot flashes or chills,
dizziness or lightheadedness, fears of losing control or going crazy,
and fears of dying (APA, 2013). Sometimes panic attacks are expected,
occurring in response to specific environmental triggers (such as being
in a tunnel); other times, these episodes are unexpected and emerge
randomly (such as when relaxing). According to the DSM-5, the person
must experience unexpected panic attacks to qualify for a diagnosis of
panic disorder.
Experiencing a panic attack is often terrifying. Rather than recognizing
the symptoms of a panic attack merely as signs of intense anxiety,
individuals with panic disorder often misinterpret them as a sign that
something is intensely wrong internally (thinking, for example, that the
pounding heart represents an impending heart attack). Panic attacks can
occasionally precipitate trips to the emergency room because several
symptoms of panic attacks are, in fact, similar to those associated with
heart problems (e.g., palpitations, racing pulse, and a pounding
sensation in the chest) (Root, 2000). Unsurprisingly, those with panic
disorder fear future attacks and may become preoccupied with modifying
their behavior in an effort to avoid future panic attacks. For this
reason, panic disorder is often characterized as fear of fear (Goldstein
& Chambless, 1978).
Panic attacks themselves are not mental disorders. Indeed, around 23% of
Americans experience isolated panic attacks in their lives without
meeting the criteria for panic disorder (Kessler et al., 2006),
indicating that panic attacks are fairly common. Panic disorder is, of
course, much less common, afflicting 4.7% of Americans during their
lifetime (Kessler et al., 2005). Many people with panic disorder develop
agoraphobia, which is marked by fear and avoidance of situations in
which escape might be difficult or help might not be available if one
were to develop symptoms of a panic attack. People with panic disorder
often experience a comorbid disorder, such as other anxiety disorders or
major depressive disorder (APA, 2013).
Researchers are not entirely sure what causes panic disorder. Children
are at a higher risk of developing panic disorder if their parents have
the disorder (Biederman et al., 2001), and family and twins studies
indicate that the heritability of panic disorder is around 43% (Hettema,
Neale, & Kendler, 2001). The exact genes and gene functions involved in
this disorder, however, are not well-understood (APA, 2013).
Neurobiological theories of panic disorder suggest that a region of the
brain called the locus coeruleus{: data-type=“term”} may play a
role in this disorder. Located in the brainstem, the locus coeruleus is
the brain’s major source of norepinephrine, a neurotransmitter that
triggers the body’s fight-or-flight response. Activation of the locus
coeruleus is associated with anxiety and fear, and research with
nonhuman primates has shown that stimulating the locus coeruleus either
electrically or through drugs produces panic-like symptoms (Charney et
al., 1990). Such findings have led to the theory that panic disorder may
be caused by abnormal norepinephrine activity in the locus coeruleus
(Bremner, Krystal, Southwick, & Charney, 1996).
Conditioning theories of panic disorder propose that panic attacks are
classical conditioningpastehere responses
to subtle bodily sensations resembling those normally occurring when one
is anxious or frightened (Bouton, Mineka, & Barlow, 2001). For example,
consider a child who has asthma. An acute asthma attack produces
sensations, such as shortness of breath, coughing, and chest tightness,
that typically elicit fear and anxiety. Later, when the child
experiences subtle symptoms that resemble the frightening symptoms of
earlier asthma attacks (such as shortness of breath after climbing
stairs), he may become anxious, fearful, and then experience a panic
attack. In this situation, the subtle symptoms would represent a
conditioned stimulus, and the panic attack would be a conditioned
response. The finding that panic disorder is nearly three times as
frequent among people with asthma as it is among people without asthma
(Weiser, 2007) supports the possibility that panic disorder has the
potential to develop through classical conditioning.
Cognitive factors may play an integral part in panic disorder.
Generally, cognitive theories (Clark, 1996) argue that those with panic
disorder are prone to interpret ordinary bodily sensations
catastrophically, and these fearful interpretations set the stage for
panic attacks. For example, a person might detect bodily changes that
are routinely triggered by innocuous events such getting up from a
seated position (dizziness), exercising (increased heart rate, shortness
of breath), or drinking a large cup of coffee (increased heart rate,
trembling). The individual interprets these subtle bodily changes
catastrophically (“Maybe I’m having a heart attack!”). Such
interpretations create fear and anxiety, which trigger additional
physical symptoms; subsequently, the person experiences a panic attack.
Support of this contention rests with findings that people with more
severe catastrophic thoughts about sensations have more frequent and
severe panic attacks, and among those with panic disorder, reducing
catastrophic cognitions about their sensations is as effective as
medication in reducing panic attacks (Good & Hinton, 2009).
Alex was always worried about many things. He worried that his children
would drown when they played at the beach. Each time he left the house,
he worried that an electrical short circuit would start a fire in his
home. He worried that his wife would lose her job at the prestigious law
firm. He worried that his daughter’s minor staph infection could turn
into a massive life-threatening condition. These and other worries
constantly weighed heavily on Alex’s mind, so much so that they made it
difficult for him to make decisions and often left him feeling tense,
irritable, and worn out. One night, Alex’s wife was to drive their son
home from a soccer game. However, his wife stayed after the game and
talked with some of the other parents, resulting in her arriving home 45
minutes late. Alex had tried to call his cell phone three or four times,
but he could not get through because the soccer field did not have a
signal. Extremely worried, Alex eventually called the police, convinced
that his wife and son had not arrived home because they had been in a
terrible car accident.
Alex suffers from generalized anxiety disorder{:
data-type=“term”}: a relatively continuous state of excessive,
uncontrollable, and pointless worry and apprehension. People with
generalized anxiety disorder often worry about routine, everyday things,
even though their concerns are unjustified
([link]). For example, an individual may worry
about her health and finances, the health of family members, the safety
of her children, or minor matters (e.g., being late for an appointment)
without having any legitimate reason for doing so (APA, 2013). A
diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder requires that the diffuse
worrying and apprehension characteristic of this disorder—what Sigmund
Freudpastehere referred to as
free-floating anxiety—is not part of another disorder, occurs more days
than not for at least six months, and is accompanied by any three of the
following symptoms: restlessness, difficulty concentrating, being easily
fatigued, muscle tension, irritability, and sleep difficulties.
{:
#Figure_15_04_Worry}
About 5.7% of the U.S. population will develop symptoms of generalized
anxiety disorder during their lifetime (Kessler et al., 2005), and
females are 2 times as likely as males to experience the disorder (APA,
2013). Generalized anxiety disorder is highly comorbid with mood
disorders and other anxiety disorders (Noyes, 2001), and it tends to be
chronic. Also, generalized anxiety disorder appears to increase the risk
for heart attacks and strokes, especially in people with preexisting
heart conditions (Martens et al., 2010).
Although there have been few investigations aimed at determining the
heritability of generalized anxiety disorder, a summary of available
family and twin studies suggests that genetic factors play a modest role
in the disorder (Hettema et al., 2001). Cognitive theories of
generalized anxiety disorder suggest that worry represents a mental
strategy to avoid more powerful negative emotions (Aikins & Craske,
2001), perhaps stemming from earlier unpleasant or traumatic
experiences. Indeed, one longitudinal study found that childhood
maltreatment was strongly related to the development of this disorder
during adulthood (Moffitt et al., 2007); worrying might distract people
from remembering painful childhood experiences.
Anxiety disorders are a group of disorders in which a person experiences
excessive, persistent, and distressing fear and anxiety that interferes
with normal functioning. Anxiety disorders include specific phobia: a
specific unrealistic fear; social anxiety disorder: extreme fear and
avoidance of social situations; panic disorder: suddenly overwhelmed by
panic even though there is no apparent reason to be frightened;
agoraphobia: an intense fear and avoidance of situations in which it
might be difficult to escape; and generalized anxiety disorder: a
relatively continuous state of tension, apprehension, and dread.
Question
In which of the following anxiety disorders is the person in a
continuous state of excessive, pointless worry and apprehension?
panic disorder
generalized anxiety disorder
agoraphobia
social anxiety disorder {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
Which of the following would constitute a safety behavior?
encountering a phobic stimulus in the company of other people
avoiding a field where snakes are likely to be present
avoiding eye contact
worrying as a distraction from painful memories {: type=“a”}
Describe how cognitive theories of the etiology of anxiety
disorders differ from learning theories.
Learning theories suggest that some anxiety disorders, especially
specific phobia, can develop through a number of learning
mechanisms. These mechanisms can include classical and operant
conditioning, modeling, or vicarious learning. Cognitive theories,
in contrast, assume that some anxiety disorder, especially panic
disorder, develop through cognitive misinterpretations of anxiety
and other symptoms.
anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear, anxiety, and
avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape
if one experiences symptoms of a panic attack ^
area of the brainstem that contains norepinephrine, a
neurotransmitter that triggers the body’s fight-or-flight
response; has been implicated in panic disorder ^
anxiety disorder characterized by unexpected panic attacks, along
with at least one month of worry about panic attacks or
self-defeating behavior related to the attacks ^
mental and behavior acts designed to reduce anxiety in social
situations by reducing the chance of negative social outcomes;
common in social anxiety disorder ^
characterized by extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and
avoidance of social situations in which one could potentially be
evaluated negatively by others ^
anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, distressing, and
persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation
Copyright Notice
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If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Discuss
supernatural perspectives on the origin of psychological disorders,
in their historical context * Describe modern biological and
psychological perspectives on the origin of psychological disorders
* Identify which disorders generally show the highest degree of
heritability * Describe the diathesis-stress model and its
importance to the study of psychopathology
Scientists and mental health professionals may adopt different
perspectives in attempting to understand or explain the underlying
mechanisms that contribute to the development of a psychological
disorder. The perspective used in explaining a psychological disorder is
extremely important, in that it will consist of explicit assumptions
regarding how best to study the disorder, its etiology, and what kinds
of therapies or treatments are most beneficial. Different perspectives
provide alternate ways for how to think about the nature of
psychopathology.
For centuries, psychological disorders were viewed from a
supernatural{: data-type=“term”} perspective: attributed to a
force beyond scientific understanding. Those afflicted were thought to
be practitioners of black magic or possessed by spirits
([link]) (Maher & Maher, 1985). For example,
convents throughout Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries reported
hundreds of nuns falling into a state of frenzy in which the afflicted
foamed at the mouth, screamed and convulsed, sexually propositioned
priests, and confessed to having carnal relations with devils or Christ.
Although, today, these cases would suggest serious mental illness; at
the time, these events were routinely explained as possession by
devilish forces (Waller, 2009a). Similarly, grievous fits by young girls
are believed to have precipitated the witch panic in New England late in
the 17th century (Demos, 1983). Such beliefs in supernatural causes of
mental illness are still held in some societies today; for example,
beliefs that supernatural forces cause mental illness are common in some
cultures in modern-day Nigeria (Aghukwa, 2012).
{:
#Figure_15_03_Madness}
Tip
Dancing Mania
Between the 11th and 17th centuries, a curious epidemic swept across
Western Europe. Groups of people would suddenly begin to dance with
wild abandon. This compulsion to dance—referred to as dancing
maniapastehere—sometimes gripped
thousands of people at a time ([link]).
Historical accounts indicate that those afflicted would sometimes
dance with bruised and bloody feet for days or weeks, screaming of
terrible visions and begging priests and monks to save their souls
(Waller, 2009b). What caused dancing mania is not known, but several
explanations have been proposed, including spider venom and ergot
poisoning (“Dancing Mania,” 2011).
{: #Figure_15_03_Mania}
Historian John Waller (2009a, 2009b) has provided a comprehensive and
convincing explanation of dancing mania that suggests the phenomenon
was attributable to a combination of three factors: psychological
distress, social contagion, and belief in supernatural forces. Waller
argued that various disasters of the time (such as famine, plagues,
and floods) produced high levels of psychological distress that could
increase the likelihood of succumbing to an involuntary trance state.
Waller indicated that anthropological studies and accounts of
possession rituals show that people are more likely to enter a trance
state if they expect it to happen, and that entranced individuals
behave in a ritualistic manner, their thoughts and behavior shaped by
the spiritual beliefs of their culture. Thus, during periods of
extreme physical and mental distress, all it took were a few
people—believing themselves to have been afflicted with a dancing
curse—to slip into a spontaneous trance and then act out the part of
one who is cursed by dancing for days on end.
The biological perspective views psychological disorders as linked to
biological phenomena, such as genetic factors, chemical imbalances, and
brain abnormalities; it has gained considerable attention and acceptance
in recent decades (Wyatt & Midkiff, 2006). Evidence from many sources
indicates that most psychological disorders have a genetic component; in
fact, there is little dispute that some disorders are largely due to
genetic factors. The graph in [link]
shows heritabilitypastehere estimates for
schizophrenia.
{: #Figure_15_03_Heritability}
Findings such as these have led many of today’s researchers to search
for specific genes and genetic mutations that contribute to mental
disorders. Also, sophisticated neural imaging technology in recent
decades has revealed how abnormalities in brain structure and function
might be directly involved in many disorders, and advances in our
understanding of neurotransmitters and hormones have yielded insights
into their possible connections. The biological perspective is currently
thriving in the study of psychological disorders.
Despite advances in understanding the biological basis of psychological
disorders, the psychosocial perspective is still very important. This
perspective emphasizes the importance of learning, stress, faulty and
self-defeating thinking patterns, and environmental factors. Perhaps the
best way to think about psychological disorders, then, is to view them
as originating from a combination of biological and psychological
processes. Many develop not from a single cause, but from a delicate
fusion between partly biological and partly psychosocial factors.
The diathesis-stress model{: data-type=“term”} (Zuckerman, 1999)
integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood
of a disorder. This diathesis-stress model suggests that people with an
underlying predisposition for a disorder (i.e., a diathesis) are more
likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse
environmental or psychological events (i.e., stress), such as childhood
maltreatment, negative life events, trauma, and so on. A diathesis is
not always a biological vulnerability to an illness; some diatheses may
be psychological (e.g., a tendency to think about life events in a
pessimistic, self-defeating way).
The key assumption of the diathesis-stress model is that both factors,
diathesis and stress, are necessary in the development of a disorder.
Different models explore the relationship between the two factors: the
level of stress needed to produce the disorder is inversely proportional
to the level of diathesis.
Psychopathology is very complex, involving a plethora of etiological
theories and perspectives. For centuries, psychological disorders were
viewed primarily from a supernatural perspective and thought to arise
from divine forces or possession from spirits. Some cultures continue to
hold this supernatural belief. Today, many who study psychopathology
view mental illness from a biological perspective, whereby psychological
disorders are thought to result largely from faulty biological
processes. Indeed, scientific advances over the last several decades
have provided a better understanding of the genetic, neurological,
hormonal, and biochemical bases of psychopathology. The psychological
perspective, in contrast, emphasizes the importance of psychological
factors (e.g., stress and thoughts) and environmental factors in the
development of psychological disorders. A contemporary, promising
approach is to view disorders as originating from an integration of
biological and psychosocial factors. The diathesis-stress model suggests
that people with an underlying diathesis, or vulnerability, for a
psychological disorder are more likely than those without the diathesis
to develop the disorder when faced with stressful events.
Question
The diathesis-stress model presumes that psychopathology results
from ________.
vulnerability and adverse experiences
biochemical factors
chemical imbalances and structural abnormalities in the brain
adverse childhood experiences {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Dr. Anastasia believes that major depressive disorder is caused by
an over-secretion of cortisol. His view on the cause of major
depressive disorder reflects a ________ perspective.
Why is the perspective one uses in explaining a psychological
disorder important?
The perspective one uses in explaining a psychological disorder
consists of assumptions that will guide how to best study and
understand the nature of a disorder, including its causes, and how
to most effectively treat the disorder.
Even today, some believe that certain occurrences have
supernatural causes. Think of an event, recent or historical, for
which others have provided supernatural explanation.
suggests that people with a predisposition for a disorder (a
diathesis) are more likely to develop the disorder when faced with
stress; model of psychopathology ^
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Understand the
problems inherent in defining the concept of psychological disorder
* Describe what is meant by harmful dysfunction * Identify the
formal criteria that thoughts, feelings, and behaviors must meet to
be considered abnormal and, thus, symptomatic of a psychological
disorder
A psychological disorder{: data-type=“term”} is a condition
characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Psychopathology{: data-type=“term”} is the study of psychological
disorders, including their symptoms, etiology{: data-type=“term”}
(i.e., their causes), and treatment. The term psychopathology can also
refer to the manifestation of a psychological disorder. Although
consensus can be difficult, it is extremely important for mental health
professionals to agree on what kinds of thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors are truly abnormal in the sense that they genuinely indicate
the presence of psychopathology. Certain patterns of behavior and inner
experience can easily be labeled as abnormal and clearly signify some
kind of psychological disturbance. The person who washes his hands 40
times per day and the person who claims to hear the voices of demons
exhibit behaviors and inner experiences that most would regard as
abnormal: beliefs and behaviors that suggest the existence of a
psychological disorder. But, consider the nervousness a young man feels
when talking to attractive women or the loneliness and longing for home
a freshman experiences during her first semester of college—these
feelings may not be regularly present, but they fall in the range of
normal. So, what kinds of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors represent a
true psychological disorder? Psychologists work to distinguish
psychological disorders from inner experiences and behaviors that are
merely situational, idiosyncratic, or unconventional.
Perhaps the simplest approach to conceptualizing psychological disorders
is to label behaviors, thoughts, and inner experiences that are
atypical, distressful, dysfunctional, and sometimes even dangerous, as
signs of a disorder. For example, if you ask a classmate for a date and
you are rejected, you probably would feel a little dejected. Such
feelings would be normal. If you felt extremely depressed—so much so
that you lost interest in activities, had difficulty eating or sleeping,
felt utterly worthless, and contemplated suicide—your feelings would be
atypical{: data-type=“term”}, would deviate from the norm, and
could signify the presence of a psychological disorder. Just because
something is atypical, however, does not necessarily mean it is
disordered.
For example, only about 4% of people in the United States have red hair,
so red hair is considered an atypical characteristic
([link]), but it is not considered
disordered, it’s just unusual. And it is less unusual in Scotland, where
approximately 13% of the population has red hair (“DNA Project Aims,”
2012). As you will learn, some disorders, although not exactly typical,
are far from atypical, and the rates in which they appear in the
population are surprisingly high.
{: #Figure_15_01_Red_Hair}
If we can agree that merely being atypical is an insufficient criterion
for a having a psychological disorder, is it reasonable to consider
behavior or inner experiences that differ from widely expected cultural
values or expectations as disordered? Using this criterion, a woman who
walks around a subway platform wearing a heavy winter coat in July while
screaming obscenities at strangers may be considered as exhibiting
symptoms of a psychological disorder. Her actions and clothes violate
socially accepted rules governing appropriate dress and behavior; these
characteristics are atypical.
Violating cultural expectations is not, in and of itself, a satisfactory
means of identifying the presence of a psychological disorder. Since
behavior varies from one culturepastehere
to another, what may be expected and considered appropriate in one
culture may not be viewed as such in other cultures. For example,
returning a stranger’s smile is expected in the United States because a
pervasive social norm dictates that we reciprocate friendly gestures. A
person who refuses to acknowledge such gestures might be considered
socially awkward—perhaps even disordered—for violating this expectation.
However, such expectations are not universally shared. Cultural
expectations in Japan involve showing reserve, restraint, and a concern
for maintaining privacy around strangers. Japanese people are generally
unresponsive to smiles from strangers (Patterson et al., 2007). Eye
contact provides another example. In the United States and Europe, eye
contact with others typically signifies honesty and attention. However,
most Latin-American, Asian, and African cultures interpret direct eye
contact as rude, confrontational, and aggressive (Pazain, 2010). Thus,
someone who makes eye contact with you could be considered appropriate
and respectful or brazen and offensive, depending on your culture
([link]).
{: #Figure_15_01_Eye_Contact}
Hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that are not physically
present) in Western societies is a violation of cultural expectations,
and a person who reports such inner experiences is readily labeled as
psychologically disordered. In other cultures, visions that, for
example, pertain to future events may be regarded as normal experiences
that are positively valued (Bourguignon, 1970). Finally, it is important
to recognize that cultural norms change over time: what might be
considered typical in a society at one time may no longer be viewed this
way later, similar to how fashion trends from one era may elicit
quizzical looks decades later—imagine how a headband, legwarmers, and
the big hair of the 1980s would go over on your campus today.
Tip
The Myth of Mental Illness
In the 1950s and 1960s, the concept of mental illness was widely
criticized. One of the major criticisms focused on the notion that
mental illness was a “myth that justifies psychiatric intervention in
socially disapproved behavior” (Wakefield, 1992). Thomas Szasz
(1960), a noted psychiatrist, was perhaps the biggest proponent of
this view. Szasz argued that the notion of mental illness was
invented by society (and the mental health establishment) to
stigmatize and subjugate people whose behavior violates accepted
social and legal norms. Indeed, Szasz suggested that what appear to
be symptoms of mental illness are more appropriately characterized as
“problems in living” (Szasz, 1960).
In his 1961 book, The Myth of Mental Illness: Foundations of a
Theory of Personal Conduct, Szasz expressed his disdain for the
concept of mental illness and for the field of psychiatry in general
(Oliver, 2006). The basis for Szasz’s attack was his contention that
detectable abnormalities in bodily structures and functions (e.g.,
infections and organ damage or dysfunction) represent the defining
features of genuine illness or disease, and because symptoms of
purported mental illness are not accompanied by such detectable
abnormalities, so-called psychological disorders are not disorders at
all. Szasz (1961/2010) proclaimed that “disease or illness can only
affect the body; hence, there can be no mental illness” (p. 267).
Today, we recognize the extreme level of psychological suffering
experienced by people with psychological disorders: the painful
thoughts and feelings they experience, the disordered behavior they
demonstrate, and the levels of distress and impairment they exhibit.
This makes it very difficult to deny the reality of mental illness.
However controversial Szasz’s views and those of his supporters might
have been, they have influenced the mental health community and
society in several ways. First, lay people, politicians, and
professionals now often refer to mental illness as mental health
“problems,” implicitly acknowledging the “problems in living”
perspective Szasz described (Buchanan-Barker & Barker, 2009). Also
influential was Szasz’s view of homosexuality. Szasz was perhaps the
first psychiatrist to openly challenge the idea that homosexuality
represented a form of mental illness or disease (Szasz, 1965). By
challenging the idea that homosexuality represented a form a mental
illness, Szasz helped pave the way for the social and civil rights
that gay and lesbian people now have (Barker, 2010). His work also
inspired legal changes that protect the rights of people in
psychiatric institutions and allow such individuals a greater degree
of influence and responsibility over their lives (Buchanan-Barker &
Barker, 2009).
If none of the criteria discussed so far is adequate by itself to define
the presence of a psychological disorder, how can a disorder be
conceptualized? Many efforts have been made to identify the specific
dimensions of psychological disorders, yet none is entirely
satisfactory. No universal definition of psychological disorder exists
that can apply to all situations in which a disorder is thought to be
present (Zachar & Kendler, 2007). However, one of the more influential
conceptualizations was proposed by Wakefield (1992), who defined
psychological disorder as a harmful dysfunction{:
data-type=“term”}. Wakefield argued that natural internal
mechanisms—that is, psychological processes honed by evolution, such as
cognition, perception, and learning—have important functions, such as
enabling us to experience the world the way others do and to engage in
rational thought, problem solving, and communication. For example,
learning allows us to associate a fear with a potential danger in such a
way that the intensity of fear is roughly equal to the degree of actual
danger. Dysfunction occurs when an internal mechanism breaks down and
can no longer perform its normal function. But, the presence of a
dysfunction by itself does not determine a disorder. The dysfunction
must be harmful in that it leads to negative consequences for the
individual or for others, as judged by the standards of the individual’s
culture. The harm may include significant internal anguish (e.g., high
levels of anxiety or depression) or problems in day-to-day living (e.g.,
in one’s social or work life).
To illustrate, Janet has an extreme fear of spiders. Janet’s fear might
be considered a dysfunction in that it signals that the internal
mechanism of learning is not working correctly (i.e., a faulty process
prevents Janet from appropriately associating the magnitude of her fear
with the actual threat posed by spiders). Janet’s fear of spiders has a
significant negative influence on her life: she avoids all situations in
which she suspects spiders to be present (e.g., the basement or a
friend’s home), and she quit her job last month because she saw a spider
in the restroom at work and is now unemployed. According to the harmful
dysfunction model, Janet’s condition would signify a disorder because
(a) there is a dysfunction in an internal mechanism, and (b) the
dysfunction has resulted in harmful consequences. Similar to how the
symptoms of physical illness reflect dysfunctions in biological
processes, the symptoms of psychological disorders presumably reflect
dysfunctions in mental processes. The internal mechanism component of
this model is especially appealing because it implies that disorders may
occur through a breakdown of biological functions that govern various
psychological processes, thus supporting contemporary neurobiological
models of psychological disorders (Fabrega, 2007).
Many of the features of the harmful dysfunction model are incorporated
in a formal definition of psychological disorder developed by the
American Psychiatric Associationpastehere
(APA). According to the APA (2013), a psychological disorder is a
condition that is said to consist of the following:
There are significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors. A person must experience inner states (e.g., thoughts
and/or feelings) and exhibit behaviors that are clearly
disturbed—that is, unusual, but in a negative, self-defeating way.
Often, such disturbances are troubling to those around the individual
who experiences them. For example, an individual who is
uncontrollably preoccupied by thoughts of germs spends hours each day
bathing, has inner experiences, and displays behaviors that most
would consider atypical and negative (disturbed) and that would
likely be troubling to family members.
The disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or
developmental dysfunction. Disturbed patterns of inner experiences
and behaviors should reflect some flaw (dysfunction) in the internal
biological, psychological, and developmental mechanisms that lead to
normal, healthy psychological functioning. For example, the
hallucinations observed in schizophrenia could be a sign of brain
abnormalities.
The disturbances lead to significant distress or disability in
one’s life. A person’s inner experiences and behaviors are
considered to reflect a psychological disorder if they cause the
person considerable distress, or greatly impair his ability to
function as a normal individual (often referred to as functional
impairment, or occupational and social impairment). As an
illustration, a person’s fear of social situations might be so
distressing that it causes the person to avoid all social situations
(e.g., preventing that person from being able to attend class or
apply for a job).
The disturbances do not reflect expected or culturally approved
responses to certain events. Disturbances in thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors must be socially unacceptable responses to certain
events that often happen in life. For example, it is perfectly
natural (and expected) that a person would experience great sadness
and might wish to be left alone following the death of a close family
member. Because such reactions are in some ways culturally expected,
the individual would not be assumed to signify a mental disorder.
Some believe that there is no essential criterion or set of criteria
that can definitively distinguish all cases of disorder from nondisorder
(Lilienfeld & Marino, 1999). In truth, no single approach to defining a
psychological disorder is adequate by itself, nor is there universal
agreement on where the boundary is between disordered and not
disordered. From time to time we all experience anxiety, unwanted
thoughts, and moments of sadness; our behavior at other times may not
make much sense to ourselves or to others. These inner experiences and
behaviors can vary in their intensity, but are only considered
disordered when they are highly disturbing to us and/or others, suggest
a dysfunction in normal mental functioning, and are associated with
significant distress or disability in social or occupational activities.
Psychological disorders are conditions characterized by abnormal
thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Although challenging, it is essential
for psychologists and mental health professionals to agree on what kinds
of inner experiences and behaviors constitute the presence of a
psychological disorder. Inner experiences and behaviors that are
atypical or violate social norms could signify the presence of a
disorder; however, each of these criteria alone is inadequate. Harmful
dysfunction describes the view that psychological disorders result from
the inability of an internal mechanism to perform its natural function.
Many of the features of harmful dysfunction conceptualization have been
incorporated in the APA’s formal definition of psychological disorders.
According to this definition, the presence of a psychological disorder
is signaled by significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors; these disturbances must reflect some kind of dysfunction
(biological, psychological, or developmental), must cause significant
impairment in one’s life, and must not reflect culturally expected
reactions to certain life events.
Question
In the harmful dysfunction definition of psychological disorders,
dysfunction involves ________.
the inability of an psychological mechanism to perform its
function
the breakdown of social order in one’s community
communication problems in one’s immediate family
all the above {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Patterns of inner experience and behavior are thought to reflect
the presence of a psychological disorder if they ________.
are highly atypical
lead to significant distress and impairment in one’s life
Discuss why thoughts, feelings, or behaviors that are merely
atypical or unusual would not necessarily signify the presence of
a psychological disorder. Provide an example.
Just because something is atypical or unusual does not mean it is
disordered. A person may experience atypical inner experiences or
exhibit unusual behaviors, but she would not be considered
disordered if they are not distressing, disturbing, or reflecting
a dysfunction. For example, a classmate might stay up all night
studying before exams; although atypical, this behavior is
unlikely to possess any of the other criteria for psychological
disorder mentioned previously.
Identify a behavior that is considered unusual or abnormal in your
own culture; however, it would be considered normal and expected
in another culture.
study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms,
causes, and treatment; manifestation of a psychological disorder
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain why
classification systems are necessary in the study of psychopathology
* Describe the basic features of the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) * Discuss changes
in the DSM over time, including criticisms of the current edition *
Identify which disorders are generally the most common
A first step in the study of psychological disorders is carefully and
systematically discerning significant signs and symptoms. How do mental
health professionals ascertain whether or not a person’s inner states
and behaviors truly represent a psychological disorder? Arriving at a
proper diagnosis{: data-type=“term”}—that is, appropriately
identifying and labeling a set of defined symptoms—is absolutely
crucial. This process enables professionals to use a common language
with others in the field and aids in communication about the disorder
with the patient, colleagues and the public. A proper diagnosis is an
essential element to guide proper and successful treatment. For these
reasons, classification systems that organize psychological disorders
systematically are necessary.
Although a number of classification systems have been developed over
time, the one that is used by most mental health professionals in the
United States is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM-5){: data-type=“term”}, published by the American
Psychiatric Association (2013). (Note that the American Psychiatric
Association differs from the American Psychological Association; both
are abbreviated APA.) The first edition of the DSM, published in 1952,
classified psychological disorders according to a format developed by
the U.S. Army during World War II (Clegg, 2012). In the years since, the
DSM has undergone numerous revisions and editions. The most recent
edition, published in 2013, is the DSM-5 (APA, 2013). The DSM-5 includes
many categories of disorders (e.g., anxiety disorders, depressive
disorders, and dissociative disorders). Each disorder is described in
detail, including an overview of the disorder (diagnostic features),
specific symptoms required for diagnosis (diagnostic criteria),
prevalence information (what percent of the population is thought to be
afflicted with the disorder), and risk factors associated with the
disorder. [link] shows lifetime prevalence
rates—the percentage of people in a population who develop a disorder in
their lifetime—of various psychological disorders among U.S. adults.
These data were based on a national sample of 9,282 U.S. residents
(National Comorbidity Survey, 2007).
{: #Figure_15_02_Disorders}
The DSM-5 also provides information about comorbidity{:
data-type=“term”}; the co-occurrence of two disorders. For example, the
DSM-5 mentions that 41% of people with obsessive-compulsive disorder
(OCD) also meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder
([link]). Drug use is highly comorbid
with other mental illnesses; 6 out of 10 people who have a substance use
disorder also suffer from another form of mental illness (National
Institute on Drug Abuse [NIDA], 2007).
{: #Figure_15_02_Comorbidity}
The DSM has changed considerably in the half-century since it was
originally published. The first two editions of the DSM, for example,
listed homosexuality as a disorder; however, in 1973, the APA voted to
remove it from the manual (Silverstein, 2009). Additionally, beginning
with the DSM-III in 1980, mental disorders have been described in much
greater detail, and the number of diagnosable conditions has grown
steadily, as has the size of the manual itself. DSM-I included 106
diagnoses and was 130 total pages, whereas DSM-III included more than 2
times as many diagnoses (265) and was nearly seven times its size (886
total pages) (Mayes & Horowitz, 2005). Although DSM-5 is longer than
DSM-IV, the volume includes only 237 disorders, a decrease from the 297
disorders that were listed in DSM-IV. The latest edition, DSM-5,
includes revisions in the organization and naming of categories and in
the diagnostic criteria for various disorders (Regier, Kuhl, & Kupfer,
2012), while emphasizing careful consideration of the importance of
gender and cultural difference in the expression of various symptoms
(Fisher, 2010).
Some believe that establishing new diagnoses might overpathologize the
human condition by turning common human problems into mental illnesses
(The Associated Press, 2013). Indeed, the finding that nearly half of
all Americans will meet the criteria for a DSM disorder at some point in
their life (Kessler et al., 2005) likely fuels much of this skepticism.
The DSM-5 is also criticized on the grounds that its diagnostic criteria
have been loosened, thereby threatening to “turn our current diagnostic
inflation into diagnostic hyperinflation” (Frances, 2012, para. 22). For
example, DSM-IV specified that the symptoms of major depressive disorder
must not be attributable to normal bereavement (loss of a loved one).
The DSM-5, however, has removed this bereavement exclusion, essentially
meaning that grief and sadness after a loved one’s death can constitute
major depressive disorder.
A second classification system, the International Classification of
Diseases (ICD){: data-type=“term”}, is also widely recognized.
Published by the World Health Organization (WHO), the ICD was developed
in Europe shortly after World War II and, like the DSM, has been revised
several times. The categories of psychological disorders in both the DSM
and ICD are similar, as are the criteria for specific disorders;
however, some differences exist. Although the ICD is used for clinical
purposes, this tool is also used to examine the general health of
populations and to monitor the prevalence of diseases and other health
problems internationally (WHO, 2013). The ICD is in its 10th edition
(ICD-10); however, efforts are now underway to develop a new edition
(ICD-11) that, in conjunction with the changes in DSM-5, will help
harmonize the two classification systems as much as possible (APA,
2013).
A study that compared the use of the two classification systems found
that worldwide the ICD is more frequently used for clinical diagnosis,
whereas the DSM is more valued for research (Mezzich, 2002). Most
research findings concerning the etiology and treatment of psychological
disorders are based on criteria set forth in the DSM (Oltmanns &
Castonguay, 2013). The DSM also includes more explicit disorder
criteria, along with an extensive and helpful explanatory text (Regier
et al., 2012). The DSM is the classification system of choice among U.S.
mental health professionals, and this chapter is based on the DSM
paradigm.
As these disorders are outlined, please bear two things in mind. First,
remember that psychological disorders represent extremes of inner
experience and behavior. If, while reading about these disorders, you
feel that these descriptions begin to personally characterize you, do
not worry—this moment of enlightenment probably means nothing more than
you are normal. Each of us experiences episodes of sadness, anxiety, and
preoccupation with certain thoughts—times when we do not quite feel
ourselves. These episodes should not be considered problematic unless
the accompanying thoughts and behaviors become extreme and have a
disruptive effect on one’s life. Second, understand that people with
psychological disorders are far more than just embodiments of their
disorders. We do not use terms such as schizophrenics, depressives, or
phobics because they are labels that objectify people who suffer from
these conditions, thus promoting biased and disparaging assumptions
about them. It is important to remember that a psychological disorder is
not what a person is; it is something that a person has—through no
fault of his or her own. As is the case with cancer or diabetes, those
with psychological disorders suffer debilitating, often painful
conditions that are not of their own choosing. These individuals deserve
to be viewed and treated with compassion, understanding, and dignity.
The diagnosis and classification of psychological disorders is essential
in studying and treating psychopathology. The classification system used
by most U.S. professionals is the DSM-5. The first edition of the DSM
was published in 1952, and has undergone numerous revisions. The 5th and
most recent edition, the DSM-5, was published in 2013. The diagnostic
manual includes a total of 237 specific diagnosable disorders, each
described in detail, including its symptoms, prevalence, risk factors,
and comorbidity. Over time, the number of diagnosable conditions listed
in the DSM has grown steadily, prompting criticism from some.
Nevertheless, the diagnostic criteria in the DSM are more explicit than
that of any other system, which makes the DSM system highly desirable
for both clinical diagnosis and research.
Question
The letters in the abbreviation DSM-5 stand for ________.
Diseases and Statistics Manual of Medicine
Diagnosable Standards Manual of Mental Disorders
Diseases and Symptoms Manual of Mental Disorders
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders {:
type=“a”}
Check Answer
D
Question
A study based on over 9,000 U. S. residents found that the most
prevalent disorder was ________.
Describe the DSM-5. What is it, what kind of information does it
contain, and why is it important to the study and treatment of
psychological disorders?
The DSM-5 is the classification system of psychological disorders
preferred by most U.S. mental health professionals, and it is
published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). It
consists of broad categories of disorders and specific disorders
that fall within each category. Each disorder has an explicit
description of its symptoms, as well as information concerning
prevalence, risk factors, and comorbidity. The DSM-5 provides a
common language that enables mental health professionals to
communicate effectively about sets of symptoms.
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) and the DSM
differ in various ways. What are some of the differences in these
two classification systems?
The ICD is used primarily for making clinical diagnoses and more
broadly for examining the general health of populations and
monitoring the international prevalence of diseases and other
health problems. While the DSM is also used for diagnostic
purposes, it is also highly valued as a research tool. For
example, much of the data regarding the etiology and treatment of
psychological disorders are based on diagnostic criteria set forth
in the DSM.
authoritative index of mental and physical diseases, including
infectious diseases, and the criteria for their diagnosis;
published by the World Health Organization (WHO)
Copyright Notice
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If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain how the
sociocultural model is used in therapy * Discuss barriers to mental
health services among ethnic minorities
The sociocultural perspective looks at you, your behaviors, and your
symptoms in the context of your culture{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} and background. For example, José is an 18-year-old
Hispanic male from a traditional family. José comes to treatment because
of depression. During the intake session, he reveals that he is gay and
is nervous about telling his family. He also discloses that he is
concerned because his religious background has taught him that
homosexuality is wrong. How does his religious and cultural background
affect him? How might his cultural background affect how his family
reacts if José were to tell them he is gay?
As our society becomes increasingly multiethnic and multiracial, mental
health professionals must develop cultural competence{:
data-type=“term”} ([link]), which means
they must understand and address issues of race, culture, and ethnicity.
They must also develop strategies to effectively address the needs of
various populations for which Eurocentric therapies have limited
application (Sue, 2004). For example, a counselor whose treatment
focuses on individual decision making may be ineffective at helping a
Chinese client with a collectivist approach to problem solving (Sue,
2004).
Multicultural counseling and therapy aims to offer both a helping role
and process that uses modalities and defines goals consistent with the
life experiences and cultural values of clients. It strives to recognize
client identities to include individual, group, and universal
dimensions, advocate the use of universal and culture-specific
strategies and roles in the healing process, and balancs the importance
of individualism and collectivism in the assessment, diagnosis, and
treatment of client and client systems (Sue, 2001).
This therapeutic perspective integrates the impact of cultural and
social norms, starting at the beginning of treatment. Therapists who use
this perspective work with clients to obtain and integrate information
about their cultural patterns into a unique treatment approach based on
their particular situation (Stewart, Simmons, & Habibpour, 2012).
Sociocultural therapy can include individual, group, family, and couples
treatment modalities.
{: #CNX_Psych_16_05_Ethnic}
See also
Watch this short video to
learn more about cultural competence and sociocultural treatments.
Statistically, ethnic minorities tend to utilize mental health services
less frequently than White, middle-class Americans (Alegría et al.,
2008; Richman, Kohn-Wood, & Williams, 2007). Why is this so? Perhaps the
reason has to do with access and availability of mental health services.
Ethnic minorities and individuals of low socioeconomic status (SES)
report that barriers to services include lack of insurance,
transportation, and time (Thomas & Snowden, 2002). However, researchers
have found that even when income levels and insurance variables are
taken into account, ethnic minorities are far less likely to seek out
and utilize mental health services. And when access to mental health
services is comparable across ethnic and racial groups, differences in
service utilization remain (Richman et al., 2007).
In a study involving thousands of women, it was found that the
prevalence rate of anorexia was similar across different races, but that
bulimia nervosa was more prevalent among Hispanic and African American
women when compared with non-Hispanic whites (Marques et al., 2011).
Although they have similar or higher rates of eating disorders, Hispanic
and African American women with these disorders tend to seek and engage
in treatment far less than Caucasian women. These findings suggest
ethnic disparities in access to care, as well as clinical and referral
practices that may prevent Hispanic and African American women from
receiving care, which could include lack of bilingual treatment, stigma,
fear of not being understood, family privacy, and lack of education
about eating disorders.
Perceptions and attitudes toward mental health services may also
contribute to this imbalance. A recent study at King’s College, London,
found many complex reasons why people do not seek treatment:
self-sufficiency and not seeing the need for help, not seeing therapy as
effective, concerns about confidentiality, and the many effects of
stigma and shame (Clement et al., 2014). And in another study, African
Americans exhibiting depression were less willing to seek treatment due
to fear of possible psychiatric hospitalization as well as fear of the
treatment itself (Sussman, Robins, & Earls, 1987). Instead of mental
health treatment, many African Americans prefer to be self-reliant or
use spiritual practices (Snowden, 2001; Belgrave & Allison, 2010). For
example, it has been found that the Black church plays a significant
role as an alternative to mental health services by providing prevention
and treatment-type programs designed to enhance the psychological and
physical well-being of its members (Blank, Mahmood, Fox, & Guterbock,
2002).
Additionally, people belonging to ethnic groups that already report
concerns about prejudice and discrimination are less likely to seek
services for a mental illness because they view it as an additional
stigma (Gary, 2005; Townes, Cunningham, & Chavez-Korell, 2009; Scott,
McCoy, Munson, Snowden, & McMillen, 2011). For example, in one recent
study of 462 older Korean Americans (over the age of 60) many
participants reported suffering from depressive symptoms. However, 71%
indicated they thought depression was a sign of personal weakness, and
14% reported that having a mentally ill family member would bring shame
to the family (Jang, Chiriboga, & Okazaki, 2009).
Language differences are a further barrier to treatment. In the previous
study on Korean Americans’ attitudes toward mental health services, it
was found that there were no Korean-speaking mental health professionals
where the study was conducted (Orlando and Tampa, Florida) (Jang et al.,
2009). Because of the growing number of people from ethnically diverse
backgrounds, there is a need for therapists and psychologists to develop
knowledge and skills to become culturally competent (Ahmed, Wilson,
Henriksen, & Jones, 2011). Those providing therapy must approach the
process from the context of the unique culture of each client (Sue &
Sue, 2007).
Tip
Treatment Perceptions
By the time a child is a senior in high school, 20% of his
classmates—that is 1 in 5—will have experienced a mental health
problem (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999), and
8%—about 1 in 12—will have attempted suicide (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2014). Of those classmates experiencing
mental disorders, only 20% will receive professional help (U.S.
Public Health Service, 2000). Why?
It seems that the public has a negative perception of children and
teens with mental health disorders. According to researchers from
Indiana University, the University of Virginia, and Columbia
University, interviews with over 1,300 U.S. adults show that they
believe children with depression are prone to violence and that if a
child receives treatment for a psychological disorder, then that
child is more likely to be rejected by peers at school.
Bernice Pescosolido, author of the study, asserts that this is a
misconception. However, stigmatization of psychological disorders is
one of the main reasons why young people do not get the help they
need when they are having difficulties. Pescosolido and her
colleagues caution that this stigma surrounding mental illness, based
on misconceptions rather than facts, can be devastating to the
emotional and social well-being of our nation’s children.
This warning played out as a national tragedy in the 2012 shootings
at Sandy Hook Elementary. In her blog, Suzy DeYoung (2013),
co-founder of Sandy Hook Promise (the organization parents and
concerned others set up in the wake of the school massacre) speaks to
treatment perceptions and what happens when children do not receive
the mental health treatment they desperately need.
I’ve become accustomed to the reaction when I tell people where I’m
from.
Eleven months later, it’s as consistent as it was back in January.
Just yesterday, inquiring as to the availability of a rental house
this holiday season, the gentleman taking my information paused to
ask, “Newtown, CT? Isn’t that where that…that thing happened?
A recent encounter in the Massachusetts Berkshires, however, took me
by surprise.
It was in a small, charming art gallery. The proprietor, a woman who
looked to be in her 60s, asked where we were from. My response
usually depends on my present mood and readiness for the inevitable
dialogue. Sometimes it’s simply, Connecticut. This time, I replied,
Newtown, CT.
The woman’s demeanor abruptly shifted from one of amiable
graciousness to one of visible agitation.
“Oh my god,” she said wide eyed and open mouthed. “Did you know her?”
… .
“Her?” I inquired
That woman,” she replied with disdain, “that woman that raised that
monster.”
“That woman’s” name was Nancy Lanza. Her son, Adam, killed her with a
rifle blast to the head before heading out to kill 20 children and
six educators at Sandy Hook Elementary School in Newtown, CT last
December 14th.
When Nelba Marquez Greene, whose beautiful 6-year-old daughter, Ana,
was killed by Adam Lanza, was recently asked how she felt about “that
woman,” this was her reply:
“She’s a victim herself. And it’s time in America that we start
looking at mental illness with compassion, and helping people who
need it.
“This was a family that needed help, an individual that needed help
and didn’t get it. And what better can come of this, of this time in
America, than if we can get help to people who really need it?”
(pars. 1–7, 10–15)
Fortunately, we are starting to see campaigns related to the
destigmatization of mental illness and an increase in public
education and awareness. Join the effort by encouraging and
supporting those around you to seek help if they need it. To learn
more, visit the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) website
(http://www.nami.org/). The nation’s largest nonprofit mental health
advocacy and support organization is NAMI.
The sociocultural perspective looks at you, your behaviors, and your
symptoms in the context of your culture and background. Clinicians using
this approach integrate cultural and religious beliefs into the
therapeutic process. Research has shown that ethnic minorities are less
likely to access mental health services than their White middle-class
American counterparts. Barriers to treatment include lack of insurance,
transportation, and time; cultural views that mental illness is a
stigma; fears about treatment; and language barriers.
Question
The sociocultural perspective looks at you, your behaviors, and
your symptoms in the context of your ________.
education
socioeconomic status
culture and background
age {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Which of the following was not listed as a barrier to mental
health treatment?
fears about treatment
language
transportation
being a member of the ethnic majority {: type=“a”}
Lashawn is a 24-year-old African American female. For years she
has been struggling with bulimia. She knows she has a problem, but
she is not willing to seek mental health services. What are some
reasons why she may be hesitant to get help?
One reason may be that her culture views having a mental illness
as a stigma. Additionally, perhaps she doesn’t have insurance and
is worried about the cost of therapy. She could also be afraid
that a White counselor would not understand her cultural
background, so she would feel uncomfortable sharing things. Also,
she may believe she is self-reliant and tell herself that she’s a
strong woman who can fix this problem on her own without the help
of a therapist.
What is your attitude toward mental health treatment? Would you
seek treatment if you were experiencing symptoms or having trouble
functioning in your life? Why or why not? In what ways do you
think your cultural and/or religious beliefs influence your
attitude toward psychological intervention?
therapist’s understanding and attention to issues of race,
culture, and ethnicity in providing treatment
Copyright Notice
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If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Recognize the
goal of substance-related and addictive disorders treatment *
Discuss what makes for effective treatment * Describe how comorbid
disorders are treated
Addiction is often viewed as a chronic disease
([link]). The choice to use a
substance is initially voluntary; however, because chronic substance use
can permanently alter the neural structure in the prefrontal cortex, an
area of the brain associated with decision-making and judgment, a person
becomes driven to use drugs and/or alcohol (Muñoz-Cuevas, Athilingam,
Piscopo, & Wilbrecht, 2013). This helps explain why relapse rates tend
to be high. About 40%–60% of individuals relapse{:
data-type=“term”}, which means they return to abusing drugs and/or
alcohol after a period of improvement (National Institute on Drug Abuse
[NIDA], 2008).
{:
#CNX_Psych_16_04_DrugSurvey}
The goal of substance-related treatment is to help an addicted person
stop compulsive drug-seeking behaviors (NIDA, 2012). This means an
addicted person will need long-term treatment, similar to a person
battling a chronic physical disease such as hypertension or diabetes.
Treatment usually includes behavioral therapy and/or medication,
depending on the individual (NIDA, 2012). Specialized therapies have
also been developed for specific types of substance-related disorders,
including alcohol, cocaine, and opioids (McGovern & Carroll, 2003).
Substance-related treatment is considered much more cost-effective than
incarceration or not treating those with addictions (NIDA, 2012)
([link]).
Specific factors make substance-related treatment much more effective.
One factor is duration of treatment. Generally, the addict needs to be
in treatment for at least three months to achieve a positive outcome
(Simpson, 1981; Simpson, Joe, & Bracy, 1982; NIDA, 2012). This is due to
the psychological, physiological, behavioral, and social aspects of
abuse (Simpson, 1981; Simpson et al., 1982; NIDA, 2012). While in
treatment, an addict might receive behavior therapy, which can help
motivate the addict to participate in the treatment program and teach
strategies for dealing with cravings and how to prevent relapse. Also,
treatment needs to be holistic and address multiple needs, not just the
drug addiction. This means that treatment will address factors such as
communication, stress management, relationship issues, parenting,
vocational concerns, and legal concerns (McGovern & Carroll, 2003; NIDA,
2012).
While individual therapy is used in the treatment of substance-related
disorders, group therapy is the most widespread treatment modality
(Weiss, Jaffee, de Menil, & Cogley, 2004). The rationale behind using
group therapy for addiction treatment is that addicts are much more
likely to maintain sobriety in a group format. It has been suggested
that this is due to the rewarding and therapeutic benefits of the group,
such as support, affiliation, identification, and even confrontation
(Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2005). For teenagers, the whole
family often needs to participate in treatment to address issues such as
family dynamics, communication, and relapse prevention. Family
involvement in teen drug addiction is vital. Research suggests that
greater parental involvement is correlated with a greater reduction in
use by teen substance abusers. Also, mothers who participated in
treatment displayed better mental health and greater warmth toward their
children (Bertrand et al., 2013). However, neither individual nor group
therapy has been found to be more effective (Weiss et al., 2004).
Regardless of the type of treatment service, the primary focus is on
abstinence or at the very least a significant reduction in use (McGovern
& Carroll, 2003).
Treatment also usually involves medications to detox the addict safely
after an overdose, to prevent seizures and agitation that often occur in
detox, to prevent reuse of the drug, and to manage withdrawal symptoms.
Getting off drugs often involves the use of drugs—some of which can be
just as addictive. Detox can be difficult and dangerous.
See also
Watch this video to find out
more about treating substance-related disorders using the biological,
behavioral, and psychodynamic approaches.
Frequently, a person who is addicted to drugs and/or alcohol has an
additional psychological disorder. Saying a person has comorbid
disorders{: data-type=“term”} means the individual has two or more
diagnoses. This can often be a substance-related diagnosis and another
psychiatric diagnosis, such as depression, bipolar disorder, or
schizophrenia. These individuals fall into the category of mentally ill
and chemically addicted (MICA)—their problems are often chronic and
expensive to treat, with limited success. Compared with the overall
population, substance abusers are twice as likely to have a mood or
anxiety disorder. Drug abuse can cause symptoms of mood and anxiety
disorders and the reverse is also true—people with debilitating symptoms
of a psychiatric disorder may self-medicate and abuse substances.
In cases of comorbiditypastehere, the best
treatment is thought to address both (or multiple) disorders
simultaneously (NIDA, 2012). Behavior therapies are used to treat
comorbid conditions, and in many cases, psychotropic medications are
used along with psychotherapy. For example, evidence suggests that
bupropion (trade names: Wellbutrin and Zyban), approved for treating
depression and nicotine dependence, might also help reduce craving and
use of the drug methamphetamine (NIDA, 2011). However, more research is
needed to better understand how these medications work—particularly when
combined in patients with comorbidities.
Addiction is often viewed as a chronic disease that rewires the brain.
This helps explain why relapse rates tend to be high, around 40%–60%
(McLellan, Lewis, & O’Brien, & Kleber, 2000). The goal of treatment is
to help an addict stop compulsive drug-seeking behaviors. Treatment
usually includes behavioral therapy, which can take place individually
or in a group setting. Treatment may also include medication. Sometimes
a person has comorbid disorders, which usually means that they have a
substance-related disorder diagnosis and another psychiatric diagnosis,
such as depression, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia. The best
treatment would address both problems simultaneously.
Question
What is the minimum amount of time addicts should receive
treatment if they are to achieve a desired outcome?
3 months
6 months
9 months
12 months {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
When an individual has two or more diagnoses, which often includes
a substance-related diagnosis and another psychiatric diagnosis,
this is known as ________.
bipolar disorder
comorbid disorder
codependency
bi-morbid disorder {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
John was drug-free for almost six months. Then he started hanging
out with his addict friends, and he has now started abusing drugs
again. This is an example of ________.
You are conducting an intake assessment. Your client is a
45-year-old single, employed male with cocaine dependence. He
failed a drug screen at work and is mandated to treatment by his
employer if he wants to keep his job. Your client admits that he
needs help. Why would you recommend group therapy for him?
The rationale behind using group therapy for addiction treatment
is that addicts are much more likely to maintain sobriety when
treatment is in a group format. It has been suggested that it’s
due to the rewarding and therapeutic benefits of the group, such
as support, affiliation, identification, and even confrontation.
Because this client is single, he may not have family support, so
support from the group may be even more important in his ability
to recover and maintain his sobriety.
What are some substance-related and addictive disorder treatment
facilities in your community, and what types of services do they
provide? Would you recommend any of them to a friend or family
member with a substance abuse problem? Why or why not?
individual who has two or more diagnoses, which often includes a
substance abuse diagnosis and another psychiatric diagnosis, such
as depression, bipolar disorder, or schizophrenia ^
repeated drug use and/or alcohol use after a period of improvement
from substance abuse
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Distinguish
between the various modalities of treatment * Discuss benefits of
group therapy
Once a person seeks treatment, whether voluntarily or involuntarily, he
has an intake{: data-type=“term”} done to assess his clinical
needs. An intake is the therapist’s first meeting with the client. The
therapist gathers specific information to address the client’s immediate
needs, such as the presenting problem, the client’s support system, and
insurance status. The therapist informs the client about
confidentiality, fees, and what to expect in treatment.
Confidentiality{: data-type=“term”} means the therapist cannot
disclose confidential communications to any third party unless mandated
or permitted by law to do so. During the intake, the therapist and
client will work together to discuss treatment goals. Then a treatment
plan will be formulated, usually with specific measurable objectives.
Also, the therapist and client will discuss how treatment success will
be measured and the estimated length of treatment. There are several
different modalities of treatment
([link]): Individual therapy, family
therapy, couples therapy, and group therapy are the most common.
In individual therapy{: data-type=“term”}, also known as
individual psychotherapy or individual counseling, the client and
clinician meet one-on-one (usually from 45 minutes to 1 hour). These
meetings typically occur weekly or every other week, and sessions are
conducted in a confidential and caring environment
([link]). The clinician will work with
clients to help them explore their feelings, work through life
challenges, identify aspects of themselves and their lives that they
wish to change, and set goals to help them work towards these changes. A
client might see a clinician for only a few sessions, or the client may
attend individual therapy sessions for a year or longer. The amount of
time spent in therapy depends on the needs of the client as well as her
personal goals.
In group therapy{: data-type=“term”}, a clinician meets together
with several clients with similar problems
([link]). When children are placed in group
therapy, it is particularly important to match clients for age and
problems. One benefit of group therapy is that it can help decrease a
client’s shame and isolation about a problem while offering needed
support, both from the therapist and other members of the group
(American Psychological Association, 2014). A nine-year-old sexual abuse
victim, for example, may feel very embarrassed and ashamed. If he is
placed in a group with other sexually abused boys, he will realize that
he is not alone. A child struggling with poor social skills would likely
benefit from a group with a specific curriculum to foster special
skills. A woman suffering from post-partum depression could feel less
guilty and more supported by being in a group with similar women.
Group therapy also has some specific limitations. Members of the group
may be afraid to speak in front of other people because sharing secrets
and problems with complete strangers can be stressful and overwhelming.
There may be personality clashes and arguments among group members.
There could also be concerns about confidentiality: Someone from the
group might share what another participant said to people outside of the
group.
{: #CNX_Psych_16_03_Group}
Another benefit of group therapy is that members can confront each other
about their patterns. For those with some types of problems, such as
sexual abusers, group therapy is the recommended treatment. Group
treatment for this population is considered to have several benefits:
Group treatment is more economical than individual, couples, or family
therapy. Sexual abusers often feel more comfortable admitting and
discussing their offenses in a treatment group where others are modeling
openness. Clients often accept feedback about their behavior more
willingly from other group members than from therapists. Finally,
clients can practice social skills in group treatment settings.
(McGrath, Cumming, Burchard, Zeoli, & Ellerby, 2009)
Groups that have a strong educational component are called
psycho-educational groups. For example, a group for children whose
parents have cancer might discuss in depth what cancer is, types of
treatment for cancer, and the side effects of treatments, such as hair
loss. Often, group therapy sessions with children take place in school.
They are led by a school counselor, a school psychologist, or a school
social worker. Groups might focus on test anxiety, social isolation,
self-esteem, bullying, or school failure (Shechtman, 2002). Whether the
group is held in school or in a clinician’s office, group therapy has
been found to be effective with children facing numerous kinds of
challenges (Shechtman, 2002).
During a group session, the entire group could reflect on an
individual’s problem or difficulties, and others might disclose what
they have done in that situation. When a clinician is facilitating a
group, the focus is always on making sure that everyone benefits and
participates in the group and that no one person is the focus of the
entire session. Groups can be organized in various ways: some have an
overarching theme or purpose, some are time-limited, some have open
membership that allows people to come and go, and some are closed. Some
groups are structured with planned activities and goals, while others
are unstructured: There is no specific plan, and group members
themselves decide how the group will spend its time and on what goals it
will focus. This can become a complex and emotionally charged process,
but it is also an opportunity for personal growth (Page & Berkow, 1994).
Couples therapy{: data-type=“term”} involves two people in an
intimate relationship who are having difficulties and are trying to
resolve them ([link]). The couple may
be dating, partnered, engaged, or married. The primary therapeutic
orientation used in couples counseling is cognitive-behavioral therapy
(Rathus & Sanderson, 1999). Couples meet with a therapist to discuss
conflicts and/or aspects of their relationship that they want to change.
The therapist helps them see how their individual backgrounds, beliefs,
and actions are affecting their relationship. Often, a therapist tries
to help the couple resolve these problems, as well as implement
strategies that will lead to a healthier and happier relationship, such
as how to listen, how to argue, and how to express feelings. However,
sometimes, after working with a therapist, a couple will realize that
they are too incompatible and will decide to separate. Some couples seek
therapy to work out their problems, while others attend therapy to
determine whether staying together is the best solution. Counseling
couples in a high-conflict and volatile relationship can be difficult.
In fact, psychologists Peter Pearson and Ellyn Bader, who founded the
Couples Institute in Palo Alto, California, have compared the experience
of the clinician in couples’ therapy to be like “piloting a helicopter
in a hurricane” (Weil, 2012, para. 7).
Family therapy{: data-type=“term”} is a special form of group
therapy, consisting of one or more families. Although there are many
theoretical orientations in family therapy, one of the most predominant
is the systems approach. The family is viewed as an organized system,
and each individual within the family is a contributing member who
creates and maintains processes within the system that shape behavior
(Minuchin, 1985). Each member of the family influences and is influenced
by the others. The goal of this approach is to enhance the growth of
each family member as well as that of the family as a whole.
Often, dysfunctional patterns of communication that develop between
family members can lead to conflict. A family with this dynamic might
wish to attend therapy together rather than individually. In many cases,
one member of the family has problems that detrimentally affect
everyone. For example, a mother’s depression, teen daughter’s eating
disorder, or father’s alcohol dependence could affect all members of the
family. The therapist would work with all members of the family to help
them cope with the issue, and to encourage resolution and growth in the
case of the individual family member with the problem.
With family therapy, the nuclear family (i.e., parents and children) or
the nuclear family plus whoever lives in the household (e.g.,
grandparent) come into treatment. Family therapists work with the whole
family unit to heal the family. There are several different types of
family therapy. In structural family therapy{: data-type=“term”},
the therapist examines and discusses the boundaries and structure of the
family: who makes the rules, who sleeps in the bed with whom, how
decisions are made, and what are the boundaries within the family. In
some families, the parents do not work together to make rules, or one
parent may undermine the other, leading the children to act out. The
therapist helps them resolve these issues and learn to communicate more
effectively.
See also
Watch this video to view a
structural family session.
In strategic family therapy{: data-type=“term”}, the goal is to
address specific problems within the family that can be dealt with in a
relatively short amount of time. Typically, the therapist would guide
what happens in the therapy session and design a detailed approach to
resolving each member’s problem (Madanes, 1991).
There are several modalities of treatment: individual therapy, group
therapy, couples therapy, and family therapy are the most common. In an
individual therapy session, a client works one-on-one with a trained
therapist. In group therapy, usually 5–10 people meet with a trained
group therapist to discuss a common issue (e.g., divorce, grief, eating
disorders, substance abuse, or anger management). Couples therapy
involves two people in an intimate relationship who are having
difficulties and are trying to resolve them. The couple may be dating,
partnered, engaged, or married. The therapist helps them resolve their
problems as well as implement strategies that will lead to a healthier
and happier relationship. Family therapy is a special form of group
therapy. The therapy group is made up of one or more families. The goal
of this approach is to enhance the growth of each individual family
member and the family as a whole.
Question
A treatment modality in which 5–10 people with the same issue or
concern meet together with a trained clinician is known as
________.
family therapy
couples therapy
group therapy
self-help group {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
What happens during an intake?
The therapist gathers specific information to address the
client’s immediate needs such as the presenting problem, the
client’s support system, and insurance status. The therapist
informs the client about confidentiality, fees, and what to
expect in a therapy session.
The therapist guides what happens in the therapy session and
designs a detailed approach to resolving each member’s
presenting problem.
The therapist meets with a couple to help them see how their
individual backgrounds, beliefs, and actions are affecting
their relationship.
The therapist examines and discusses with the family the
boundaries and structure of the family: For example, who makes
the rules, who sleeps in the bed with whom, and how decisions
are made. {: type=“a”}
Compare and contrast individual and group therapies.
In an individual therapy session, a client works one-on-one with a
trained therapist. In group therapy, usually 5–10 people meet with
a trained group therapist to discuss a common issue, such as
divorce, grief, eating disorder, substance abuse, or anger
management.
Your best friend tells you that she is concerned about her cousin.
The cousin—a teenage girl—is constantly coming home after her
curfew, and your friend suspects that she has been drinking. What
treatment modality would you recommend to your friend and why?
therapist guides the therapy sessions and develops treatment plans
for each family member for specific problems that can addressed in
a short amount of time ^
therapist examines and discusses with the family the boundaries
and structure of the family: who makes the rules, who sleeps in
the bed with whom, how decisions are made, and what are the
boundaries within the family
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By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Distinguish
between psychotherapy and biomedical therapy * Recognize various
orientations to psychotherapy * Discuss psychotropic medications and
recognize which medications are used to treat specific psychological
disorders
One of the goals of therapy is to help a person stop repeating and
reenacting destructive patterns and to start looking for better
solutions to difficult situations. This goal is reflected in the
following poem:
Autobiography in Five Short Chapters by Portia Nelson (1993)
Chapter One * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I walk down the street. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
There is a deep hole in the sidewalk. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I fall in. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I am lost… . I am helpless. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
It isn’t my fault. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
It takes forever to find a way out.
Chapter Two * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I walk down the same street. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
There is a deep hole in the sidewalk. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I pretend I don’t see it. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I fall in again. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I can’t believe I am in this same place. * * * {:
data-type=“newline”}
But, it isn’t my fault. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
It still takes a long time to get out.
Chapter Three * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I walk down the same street. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
There is a deep hole in the sidewalk. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I see it is there. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I still fall in … it’s a habit … but, * * * {:
data-type=“newline”}
my eyes are open. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I know where I am. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
It is my fault. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I get out immediately.
Chapter Four * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I walk down the same street. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
There is a deep hole in the sidewalk. * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I walk around it.
Chapter Five * * * {: data-type=“newline”}
I walk down another street.
Two types of therapy are psychotherapy and biomedical therapy. Both
types of treatment help people with psychological disorders, such as
depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. Psychotherapy{:
data-type=“term”} is a psychological treatment that employs various
methods to help someone overcome personal problems, or to attain
personal growth. In modern practice, it has evolved ino what is known as
psychodynamic therapy, which will be discussed later. Biomedical
therapy{: data-type=“term”} involves medication and/or medical
procedures to treat psychological disorders. First, we will explore the
various psychotherapeutic orientations outlined in
[link] (many of these orientations were discussed
in the Introduction chapter).
Various Psychotherapy Techniques
Type
Description
Example
Psychodynamic psychotherapy
Talk therapy based on belief that the unconscious and childhood
conflicts impact behavior
Patient talks about his past
Play therapy
Psychoanalytical therapy wherein interaction with toys is used instead
of talk; used in child therapy
Patient (child) acts out family scenes with dolls
Behavior therapy
Principles of learning applied to change undesirable behaviors
Patient learns to overcome fear of elevators through several stages of
relaxation techniques
Cognitive therapy
Awareness of cognitive process helps patients eliminate thought patterns
that lead to distress
Patient learns not to overgeneralize failure based on single failure
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Work to change cognitive distortions and self-defeating behaviors
Patient learns to identify self-defeating behaviors to overcome an
eating disorder
Humanistic therapy
Increase self-awareness and acceptance through focus on conscious
thoughts
Patient learns to articulate thoughts that keep her from achieving her
goals
Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud{: data-type=“term”
.no-emphasis} and was the first form of psychotherapy. It was the
dominant therapeutic technique in the early 20th century, but it has
since waned significantly in popularity. Freud believed most of our
psychological problems are the result of repressed impulses and trauma
experienced in childhood, and he believed psychoanalysis would help
uncover long-buried feelings. In a psychoanalyst’s office, you might see
a patient lying on a couch speaking of dreams or childhood memories, and
the therapist using various Freudian methods such as free association
and dream analysis ([link]). In free
association{: data-type=“term”}, the patient relaxes and then says
whatever comes to mind at the moment. However, Freud felt that the ego
would at times try to block, or repress, unacceptable urges or painful
conflicts during free association. Consequently, a patient would
demonstrate resistance to recalling these thoughts or situations. In
dream analysis{: data-type=“term”}, a therapist interprets the
underlying meaning of dreams.
Psychoanalysis is a therapy approach that typically takes years. Over
the course of time, the patient reveals a great deal about himself to
the therapist. Freud suggested that during this patient-therapist
relationship, the patient comes to develop strong feelings for the
therapist—maybe positive feelings, maybe negative feelings. Freud called
this transference{: data-type=“term”}: the patient transfers all
the positive or negative emotions associated with the patient’s other
relationships to the psychoanalyst. For example, Crystal is seeing a
psychoanalyst. During the years of therapy, she comes to see her
therapist as a father figure. She transfers her feelings about her
father onto her therapist, perhaps in an effort to gain the love and
attention she did not receive from her own father.
{:
#CNX_Psych_16_02_FreudCouch}
Today, Freud’s psychoanalytical perspective has been expanded upon by
the developments of subsequent theories and methodologies: the
psychodynamicpastehere perspective. This
approach to therapy remains centered on the role of people’s internal
drives and forces, but treatment is less intensive than Freud’s original
model.
See also
View a brief video that
presents an overview of psychoanalysis theory, research, and
practice.
Play therapy{: data-type=“term”} is often used with children since
they are not likely to sit on a couch and recall their dreams or engage
in traditional talk therapy. This technique uses a therapeutic process
of play to “help clients prevent or resolve psychosocial difficulties
and achieve optimal growth” (O’Connor, 2000, p. 7). The idea is that
children play out their hopes, fantasies, and traumas while using dolls,
stuffed animals, and sandbox figurines
([link]). Play therapy can also be used
to help a therapist make a diagnosis. The therapist observes how the
child interacts with toys (e.g., dolls, animals, and home settings) in
an effort to understand the roots of the child’s disturbed behavior.
Play therapy can be nondirective or directive. In nondirective play
therapy, children are encouraged to work through their problems by
playing freely while the therapist observes (LeBlanc & Ritchie, 2001).
In directive play therapy, the therapist provides more structure and
guidance in the play session by suggesting topics, asking questions, and
even playing with the child (Harter, 1977).
In psychoanalysis{: data-type=“term”}, therapists help their
patients look into their past to uncover repressed feelings. In
behavior therapy{: data-type=“term”}, a therapist employs
principles of learning to help clients change undesirable
behaviors—rather than digging deeply into one’s unconscious. Therapists
with this orientation believe that dysfunctional behaviors, like phobias
and bedwetting, can be changed by teaching clients new, more
constructive behaviors. Behavior therapy employs both classical and
operant conditioning techniques to change behavior.
One type of behavior therapy utilizes classical conditioning techniques.
Therapists using these techniques believe that dysfunctional behaviors
are conditioned responses. Applying the conditioning principles
developed by Ivan Pavlov, these therapists seek to recondition their
clients and thus change their behavior. Emmie is eight years old, and
frequently wets her bed at night. She’s been invited to several
sleepovers, but she won’t go because of her problem. Using a type of
conditioning therapy, Emmie begins to sleep on a liquid-sensitive bed
pad that is hooked to an alarm. When moisture touches the pad, it sets
off the alarm, waking up Emmie. When this process is repeated enough
times, Emmie develops an association between urinary relaxation and
waking up, and this stops the bedwetting. Emmie has now gone three weeks
without wetting her bed and is looking forward to her first sleepover
this weekend.
One commonly used classical conditioning therapeutic technique is
counterconditioning{: data-type=“term”}: a client learns a new
response to a stimulus that has previously elicited an undesirable
behavior. Two counterconditioning techniques are aversive conditioning
and exposure therapy. Aversive conditioning{: data-type=“term”}
uses an unpleasant stimulus to stop an undesirable behavior. Therapists
apply this technique to eliminate addictive behaviors, such as smoking,
nail biting, and drinking. In aversion therapy, clients will typically
engage in a specific behavior (such as nail biting) and at the same time
are exposed to something unpleasant, such as a mild electric shock or a
bad taste. After repeated associations between the unpleasant stimulus
and the behavior, the client can learn to stop the unwanted behavior.
Aversion therapy has been used effectively for years in the treatment of
alcoholism (Davidson, 1974; Elkins, 1991; Streeton & Whelan, 2001). One
common way this occurs is through a chemically based substance known as
Antabuse. When a person takes Antabuse and then consumes alcohol,
uncomfortable side effects result including nausea, vomiting, increased
heart rate, heart palpitations, severe headache, and shortness of
breath. Antabuse is repeatedly paired with alcohol until the client
associates alcohol with unpleasant feelings, which decreases the
client’s desire to consume alcohol. Antabuse creates a conditioned
aversion to alcohol because it replaces the original pleasure response
with an unpleasant one.
In exposure therapy{: data-type=“term”}, a therapist seeks to
treat clients’ fears or anxiety by presenting them with the object or
situation that causes their problem, with the idea that they will
eventually get used to it. This can be done via reality, imagination, or
virtual reality. Exposure therapy was first reported in 1924 by Mary
Cover Jones, who is considered the mother of behavior therapy. Jones
worked with a boy named Peter who was afraid of rabbits. Her goal was to
replace Peter’s fear of rabbits with a conditioned response of
relaxation, which is a response that is incompatible with fear
([link]). How did she do it? Jones
began by placing a caged rabbit on the other side of a room with Peter
while he ate his afternoon snack. Over the course of several days, Jones
moved the rabbit closer and closer to where Peter was seated with his
snack. After two months of being exposed to the rabbit while relaxing
with his snack, Peter was able to hold the rabbit and pet it while
eating (Jones, 1924).
{: #CNX_Psych_16_02_Conditioning}
Thirty years later, Joseph Wolpe (1958) refined Jones’s techniques,
giving us the behavior therapy technique of exposure therapy that is
used today. A popular form of exposure therapy is systematic
desensitization{: data-type=“term”}, wherein a calm and pleasant
state is gradually associated with increasing levels of anxiety-inducing
stimuli. The idea is that you can’t be nervous and relaxed at the same
time. Therefore, if you can learn to relax when you are facing
environmental stimuli that make you nervous or fearful, you can
eventually eliminate your unwanted fear response (Wolpe, 1958)
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_16_02_Spider}
How does exposure therapy work? Jayden is terrified of elevators.
Nothing bad has ever happened to him on an elevator, but he’s so afraid
of elevators that he will always take the stairs. That wasn’t a problem
when Jayden worked on the second floor of an office building, but now he
has a new job—on the 29th floor of a skyscraper in downtown Los Angeles.
Jayden knows he can’t climb 29 flights of stairs in order to get to work
each day, so he decided to see a behavior therapist for help. The
therapist asks Jayden to first construct a hierarchy of elevator-related
situations that elicit fear and anxiety. They range from situations of
mild anxiety such as being nervous around the other people in the
elevator, to the fear of getting an arm caught in the door, to
panic-provoking situations such as getting trapped or the cable
snapping. Next, the therapist uses progressive relaxation. She teaches
Jayden how to relax each of his muscle groups so that he achieves a
drowsy, relaxed, and comfortable state of mind. Once he’s in this state,
she asks Jayden to imagine a mildly anxiety-provoking situation. Jayden
is standing in front of the elevator thinking about pressing the call
button.
If this scenario causes Jayden anxiety, he lifts his finger. The
therapist would then tell Jayden to forget the scene and return to his
relaxed state. She repeats this scenario over and over until Jayden can
imagine himself pressing the call button without anxiety. Over time the
therapist and Jayden use progressive relaxation and imagination to
proceed through all of the situations on Jayden’s hierarchy until he
becomes desensitized to each one. After this, Jayden and the therapist
begin to practice what he only previously envisioned in therapy,
gradually going from pressing the button to actually riding an elevator.
The goal is that Jayden will soon be able to take the elevator all the
way up to the 29th floor of his office without feeling any anxiety.
Sometimes, it’s too impractical, expensive, or embarrassing to re-create
anxiety- producing situations, so a therapist might employ virtual
reality exposure therapy{: data-type=“term”} by using a simulation
to help conquer fears. Virtual reality exposure therapy has been used
effectively to treat numerous anxiety disorders such as the fear of
public speaking, claustrophobia (fear of enclosed spaces), aviophobia
(fear of flying), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a trauma
and stressor-related disorder (Gerardi, Cukor, Difede, Rizzo, &
Rothbaum, 2010).
See also
A new virtual reality exposure therapy is being used to treat PTSD in
soldiers. Virtual Iraq is a simulation that mimics Middle Eastern
cities and desert roads with situations similar to those soldiers
experienced while deployed in Iraq. This method of virtual reality
exposure therapy has been effective in treating PTSD for combat
veterans. Approximately 80% of participants who completed treatment
saw clinically significant reduction in their symptoms of PTSD,
anxiety, and depression (Rizzo et al., 2010). Watch this Virtual
Iraq video showing
soldiers being treated via simulation.
Some behavior therapies employ operant conditioning. Recall what you
learned about operant conditioning: We have a tendency to repeat
behaviors that are reinforced. What happens to behaviors that are not
reinforced? They become extinguished. These principles can be applied to
help people with a wide range of psychological problems. For instance,
operant conditioning techniques designed to reinforce positive behaviors
and punish unwanted behaviors have been an effective tool to help
children with autism (Lovaas, 1987, 2003; Sallows & Graupner, 2005; Wolf
& Risley, 1967). This technique is called Applied Behavior Analysis
(ABA). In this treatment, child-specific reinforcers (e.g., stickers,
praise, candy, bubbles, and extra play time) are used to reward and
motivate autistic children when they demonstrate desired behaviors such
as sitting on a chair when requested, verbalizing a greeting, or making
eye contact. Punishment such as a timeout or a sharp “No!” from the
therapist or parent might be used to discourage undesirable behaviors
such as pinching, scratching, and pulling hair.
One popular operant conditioning intervention is called the token
economy{: data-type=“term”}. This involves a controlled setting
where individuals are reinforced for desirable behaviors with tokens,
such as a poker chip, that can be exchanged for items or privileges.
Token economies are often used in psychiatric hospitals to increase
patient cooperation and activity levels. Patients are rewarded with
tokens when they engage in positive behaviors (e.g., making their beds,
brushing their teeth, coming to the cafeteria on time, and socializing
with other patients). They can later exchange the tokens for extra TV
time, private rooms, visits to the canteen, and so on (Dickerson,
Tenhula, & Green-Paden, 2005).
Cognitive therapy{: data-type=“term”} is a form of psychotherapy
that focuses on how a person’s thoughts lead to feelings of distress.
The idea behind cognitive therapy is that how you think determines how
you feel and act. Cognitive therapists help their clients change
dysfunctional thoughts in order to relieve distress. They help a client
see how they misinterpret a situation (cognitive distortion). For
example, a client may overgeneralize. Because Ray failed one test in his
Psychology 101 course, he feels he is stupid and worthless. These
thoughts then cause his mood to worsen. Therapists also help clients
recognize when they blow things out of proportion. Because Ray failed
his Psychology 101 test, he has concluded that he’s going to fail the
entire course and probably flunk out of college altogether. These errors
in thinking have contributed to Ray’s feelings of distress. His
therapist will help him challenge these irrational beliefs, focus on
their illogical basis, and correct them with more logical and rational
thoughts and beliefs.
Cognitive therapy was developed by psychiatrist Aaron Beck{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis} in the 1960s. His initial focus was on
depression and how a client’s self-defeating attitude served to maintain
a depression despite positive factors in her life (Beck, Rush, Shaw, &
Emery, 1979) ([link]). Through
questioning, a cognitive therapist can help a client recognize
dysfunctional ideas, challenge catastrophizing thoughts about themselves
and their situations, and find a more positive way to view things (Beck,
2011).
Cognitive-behavioral therapists focus much more on present issues than
on a patient’s childhood or past, as in other forms of psychotherapy.
One of the first forms of cognitive-behavioral therapy was rational
emotive therapy (RET){: data-type=“term”}, which was founded by
Albert Ellis and grew out of his dislike of Freudian psychoanalysis
(Daniel, n.d.). Behaviorists such as Joseph Wolpe also influenced
Ellis’s therapeutic approach (National Association of
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists, 2009).
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT){: data-type=“term”} helps
clients examine how their thoughts affect their behavior. It aims to
change cognitive distortions and self-defeating behaviors. In essence,
this approach is designed to change the way people think as well as how
they act. It is similar to cognitive therapy in that CBT attempts to
make individuals aware of their irrational and negative thoughts and
helps people replace them with new, more positive ways of thinking. It
is also similar to behavior therapies in that CBT teaches people how to
practice and engage in more positive and healthy approaches to daily
situations. In total, hundreds of studies have shown the effectiveness
of cognitive-behavioral therapy in the treatment of numerous
psychological disorders such as depression, PTSD, anxiety disorders,
eating disorders, bipolar disorder, and substance abuse (Beck Institute
for Cognitive Behavior Therapy, n.d.). For example, CBT has been found
to be effective in decreasing levels of hopelessness and suicidal
thoughts in previously suicidal teenagers (Alavi, Sharifi, Ghanizadeh, &
Dehbozorgi, 2013). Cognitive-behavioral therapy has also been effective
in reducing PTSD in specific populations, such as transit workers
(Lowinger & Rombom, 2012).
Cognitive-behavioral therapy aims to change cognitive distortions and
self-defeating behaviors using techniques like the ABC model. With this
model, there is an Action (sometimes called an activating event),
the Belief about the event, and the Consequences of this
belief. Let’s say, Jon and Joe both go to a party. Jon and Joe each have
met a young woman at the party: Jon is talking with Megan most of the
party, and Joe is talking with Amanda. At the end of the party, Jon asks
Megan for her phone number and Joe asks Amanda. Megan tells Jon she
would rather not give him her number, and Amanda tells Joe the same
thing. Both Jon and Joe are surprised, as they thought things were going
well. What can Jon and Joe tell themselves about why the women were not
interested? Let’s say Jon tells himself he is a loser, or is ugly, or
“has no game.” Jon then gets depressed and decides not to go to another
party, which starts a cycle that keeps him depressed. Joe tells himself
that he had bad breath, goes out and buys a new toothbrush, goes to
another party, and meets someone new.
Jon’s belief about what happened results in a consequence of further
depression, whereas Joe’s belief does not. Jon is internalizing the
attribution or reason for the rebuffs, which triggers his depression. On
the other hand, Joe is externalizing the cause, so his thinking does not
contribute to feelings of depression. Cognitive-behavioral therapy
examines specific maladaptive and automatic thoughts and cognitive
distortions. Some examples of cognitive distortions are all-or-nothing
thinking, overgeneralization, and jumping to conclusions. In
overgeneralization, someone takes a small situation and makes it
huge—for example, instead of saying, “This particular woman was not
interested in me,” the man says, “I am ugly, a loser, and no one is ever
going to be interested in me.”
All or nothing thinking, which is a common type of cognitive distortion
for people suffering from depression, reflects extremes. In other words,
everything is black or white. After being turned down for a date, Jon
begins to think, “No woman will ever go out with me. I’m going to be
alone forever.” He begins to feel anxious and sad as he contemplates his
future.
The third kind of distortion involves jumping to conclusions—assuming
that people are thinking negatively about you or reacting negatively to
you, even though there is no evidence. Consider the example of Savannah
and Hillaire, who recently met at a party. They have a lot in common,
and Savannah thinks they could become friends. She calls Hillaire to
invite her for coffee. Since Hillaire doesn’t answer, Savannah leaves
her a message. Several days go by and Savannah never hears back from her
potential new friend. Maybe Hillaire never received the message because
she lost her phone or she is too busy to return the phone call. But if
Savannah believes that Hillaire didn’t like Savannah or didn’t want to
be her friend, she is demonstrating the cognitive distortion of jumping
to conclusions.
How effective is CBT? One client said this about his
cognitive-behavioral therapy:
I have had many painful episodes of depression in my life, and this has
had a negative effect on my career and has put considerable strain on my
friends and family. The treatments I have received, such as taking
antidepressants and psychodynamic counseling, have helped [me] to cope
with the symptoms and to get some insights into the roots of my
problems. CBT has been by far the most useful approach I have found in
tackling these mood problems. It has raised my awareness of how my
thoughts impact on my moods. How the way I think about myself, about
others and about the world can lead me into depression. It is a
practical approach, which does not dwell so much on childhood
experiences, whilst acknowledging that it was then that these patterns
were learned. It looks at what is happening now, and gives tools to
manage these moods on a daily basis. (Martin, 2007, n.p.)
Humanistic psychology focuses on helping people achieve their potential.
So it makes sense that the goal of humanistic therapy{:
data-type=“term”} is to help people become more self-aware and accepting
of themselves. In contrast to psychoanalysis, humanistic therapists
focus on conscious rather than unconscious thoughts. They also emphasize
the patient’s present and future, as opposed to exploring the patient’s
past.
Psychologist Carl Rogerspastehere
developed a therapeutic orientation known as Rogerian{:
data-type=“term”}, or client-centered therapy{: data-type=“term”}.
Note the change from patients to clients. Rogers (1951) felt that
the term patient suggested the person seeking help was sick and looking
for a cure. Since this is a form of nondirective therapy{:
data-type=“term”}, a therapeutic approach in which the therapist does
not give advice or provide interpretations but helps the person to
identify conflicts and understand feelings, Rogers (1951) emphasized the
importance of the person taking control of his own life to overcome
life’s challenges.
In client-centered therapy, the therapist uses the technique of active
listening. In active listening, the therapist acknowledges, restates,
and clarifies what the client expresses. Therapists also practice what
Rogers called unconditional positive regard{: data-type=“term”},
which involves not judging clients and simply accepting them for who
they are. Rogers (1951) also felt that therapists should demonstrate
genuineness, empathy, and acceptance toward their clients because this
helps people become more accepting of themselves, which results in
personal growth.
How can we assess the effectiveness of psychotherapy? Is one technique
more effective than another? For anyone considering therapy, these are
important questions. According to the American Psychological
Association, three factors work together to produce successful
treatment. The first is the use of evidence-based treatment that is
deemed appropriate for your particular issue. The second important
factor is the clinical expertise of the psychologist or therapist. The
third factor is your own characteristics, values, preferences, and
culture. Many people begin psychotherapy feeling like their problem will
never be resolved; however, psychotherapy helps people see that they can
do things to make their situation better. Psychotherapy can help reduce
a person’s anxiety, depression, and maladaptive behaviors. Through
psychotherapy, individuals can learn to engage in healthy behaviors
designed to help them better express emotions, improve relationships,
think more positively, and perform more effectively at work or school.
Many studies have explored the effectiveness of psychotherapy. For
example, one large-scale study that examined 16 meta-analyses of CBT
reported that it was equally effective or more effective than other
therapies in treating PTSD, generalized anxiety disorder, depression,
and social phobia (Butlera, Chapmanb, Formanc, & Becka, 2006). Another
study found that CBT was as effective at treating depression (43%
success rate) as prescription medication (50% success rate) compared to
the placebo rate of 25% (DeRubeis et al., 2005). Another meta-analysis
found that psychodynamic therapy was also as effective at treating these
types of psychological issues as CBT (Shedler, 2010). However, no
studies have found one psychotherapeutic approach more effective than
another (Abbass, Kisely, & Kroenke, 2006; Chorpita et al., 2011), nor
have they shown any relationship between a client’s treatment outcome
and the level of the clinician’s training or experience (Wampold, 2007).
Regardless of which type of psychotherapy an individual chooses, one
critical factor that determines the success of treatment is the person’s
relationship with the psychologist or therapist.
Individuals can be prescribed biologically based treatments or
psychotropic medications that are used to treat mental disorders. While
these are often used in combination with psychotherapy, they also are
taken by individuals not in therapy. This is known as biomedical
therapy{: data-type=“term”}. Medications used to treat psychological
disorders are called psychotropic medications and are prescribed by
medical doctors, including psychiatrists. In Louisiana and New Mexico,
psychologists are able to prescribe some types of these medications
(American Psychological Association, 2014).
Different types and classes of medications are prescribed for different
disorders. A depressed person might be given an antidepressant, a
bipolar individual might be given a mood stabilizer, and a schizophrenic
individual might be given an antipsychotic. These medications treat the
symptoms of a psychological disorder. They can help people feel better
so that they can function on a daily basis, but they do not cure the
disorder. Some people may only need to take a psychotropic medication
for a short period of time. Others with severe disorders like bipolar
disorder or schizophrenia may need to take psychotropic medication for a
long time. [link] shows the types of medication
and how they are used.
Commonly Prescribed Psychotropic Medications
Type of Medication
Used to Treat
Brand Names of Commonly Prescribed Medications
How They Work
Side Effects
Antipsychotics (developed in the 1950s)
Schizophrenia and other types of severe thought disorders
Haldol, Mellaril, Prolixin, Thorazine
Treat positive psychotic symptoms such as auditory and visual
hallucinations, delusions, and paranoia by blocking the neurotransmitter
dopamine
Long-term use can lead to tardive dyskinesia, involuntary movements of
the arms, legs, tongue and facial muscles, resulting in Parkinson’s-like
tremors
Atypical Antipsychotics (developed in the late 1980s)
Schizophrenia and other types of severe thought disorders
Abilify, Risperdal, Clozaril
Treat the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, such as withdrawal and
apathy, by targeting both dopamine and serotonin receptors; newer
medications may treat both positive and negative symptoms
Can increase the risk of obesity and diabetes as well as elevate
cholesterol levels; constipation, dry mouth, blurred vision, drowsiness,
and dizziness
Another biologically based treatment that continues to be used, although
infrequently, is electroconvulsive therapy (ECT){:
data-type=“term”} (formerly known by its unscientific name as
electroshock therapy). It involves using an electrical current to induce
seizures to help alleviate the effects of severe depression. The exact
mechanism is unknown, although it does help alleviate symptoms for
people with severe depression who have not responded to traditional drug
therapy (Pagnin, de Queiroz, Pini, & Cassano, 2004). About 85% of people
treated with ECT improve (Reti, n.d.). However, the memory loss
associated with repeated administrations has led to it being implemented
as a last resort (Donahue, 2000; Prudic, Peyser, & Sackeim, 2000). A
more recent alternative is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a
procedure approved by the FDA in 2008 that uses magnetic fields to
stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve depression symptoms; it is
used when other treatments have not worked (Mayo Clinic, 2012).
Tip
Evidence-based Practice
A buzzword in therapy today is evidence-based practice. However, it’s
not a novel concept but one that has been used in medicine for at
least two decades. Evidence-based practice is used to reduce errors
in treatment selection by making clinical decisions based on research
(Sackett & Rosenberg, 1995). In any case, evidence-based treatment is
on the rise in the field of psychology. So what is it, and why does
it matter? In an effort to determine which treatment methodologies
are evidenced-based, professional organizations such as the American
Psychological Association (APA) have recommended that specific
psychological treatments be used to treat certain psychological
disorders (Chambless & Ollendick, 2001). According to the APA (2005),
“Evidence-based practice in psychology (EBPP) is the integration of
the best available research with clinical expertise in the context of
patient characteristics, culture, and preferences” (p. 1).
The foundational idea behind evidence based treatment is that best
practices are determined by research evidence that has been compiled
by comparing various forms of treatment (Charman & Barkham, 2005).
These treatments are then operationalized and placed in treatment
manuals—trained therapists follow these manuals. The benefits are
that evidence-based treatment can reduce variability between
therapists to ensure that a specific approach is delivered with
integrity (Charman & Barkham, 2005). Therefore, clients have a higher
chance of receiving therapeutic interventions that are effective at
treating their specific disorder. While EBPP is based on randomized
control trials, critics of EBPP reject it stating that the results of
trials cannot be applied to individuals and instead determinations
regarding treatment should be based on a therapist’s judgment (Mullen
& Streiner, 2004).
Psychoanalysis was developed by Sigmund Freud. Freud’s theory is that a
person’s psychological problems are the result of repressed impulses or
childhood trauma. The goal of the therapist is to help a person uncover
buried feelings by using techniques such as free association and dream
analysis.
Play therapy is a psychodynamic therapy technique often used with
children. The idea is that children play out their hopes, fantasies, and
traumas, using dolls, stuffed animals, and sandbox figurines.
In behavior therapy, a therapist employs principles of learning from
classical and operant conditioning to help clients change undesirable
behaviors. Counterconditioning is a commonly used therapeutic technique
in which a client learns a new response to a stimulus that has
previously elicited an undesirable behavior via classical conditioning.
Principles of operant conditioning can be applied to help people deal
with a wide range of psychological problems. Token economy is an example
of a popular operant conditioning technique.
Cognitive therapy is a technique that focuses on how thoughts lead to
feelings of distress. The idea behind cognitive therapy is that how you
think determines how you feel and act. Cognitive therapists help clients
change dysfunctional thoughts in order to relieve distress.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy explores how our thoughts affect our
behavior. Cognitive-behavioral therapy aims to change cognitive
distortions and self-defeating behaviors.
Humanistic therapy focuses on helping people achieve their potential.
One form of humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers is known as
client-centered or Rogerian therapy. Client-centered therapists use the
techniques of active listening, unconditional positive regard,
genuineness, and empathy to help clients become more accepting of
themselves.
Often in combination with psychotherapy, people can be prescribed
biologically based treatments such as psychotropic medications and/or
other medical procedures such as electro-convulsive therapy.
Question
The idea behind ________ is that how you think determines how
you feel and act.
cognitive therapy
cognitive-behavioral therapy
behavior therapy
client-centered therapy {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Mood stabilizers, such as lithium, are used to treat ________.
anxiety disorders
depression
bipolar disorder
ADHD {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
C
Question
Clay is in a therapy session. The therapist asks him to relax and
say whatever comes to his mind at the moment. This therapist is
using ________, which is a technique of ________.
Imagine that you are a psychiatrist. Your patient, Pat, comes to
you with the following symptoms: anxiety and feelings of sadness.
Which therapeutic approach would you recommend and why?
I would recommend psychodynamic talk therapy or cognitive therapy
to help the person see how her thoughts and behaviors are having
negative effects.
form of psychotherapy that focuses on how a person’s thoughts lead
to feelings of distress, with the aim of helping them change these
irrational thoughts ^
classical conditioning therapeutic technique in which a client
learns a new response to a stimulus that has previously elicited
an undesirable behavior ^
type of biomedical therapy that involves using an electrical
current to induce seizures in a person to help alleviate the
effects of severe depression ^
counterconditioning technique in which a therapist seeks to treat
a client’s fear or anxiety by presenting the feared object or
situation with the idea that the person will eventually get used
to it ^
therapeutic approach in which the therapist does not give advice
or provide interpretations but helps the person identify conflicts
and understand feelings ^
(also, psychodynamic psychotherapy) psychological treatment that
employs various methods to help someone overcome personal
problems, or to attain personal growth ^
form of exposure therapy used to treat phobias and anxiety
disorders by exposing a person to the feared object or situation
through a stimulus hierarchy ^
process in psychoanalysis in which the patient transfers all of
the positive or negative emotions associated with the patient’s
other relationships to the psychoanalyst ^
uses a simulation rather than the actual feared object or
situation to help people conquer their fears
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What comes to mind when you think about therapy for psychological
problems? You might picture someone lying on a couch talking about his
childhood while the therapist sits and takes notes, à la Sigmund Freud.
But can you envision a therapy session in which someone is wearing
virtual reality headgear to conquer a fear of snakes?
In this chapter, you will see that approaches to therapy include both
psychological and biological interventions, all with the goal of
alleviating distress. Because psychological problems can originate from
various sources—biology, genetics, childhood experiences, conditioning,
and sociocultural influences—psychologists have developed many different
therapeutic techniques and approaches. The Ocean Therapy program shown
in [link] uses multiple approaches to
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Wolf, M., & Risley, T. (1967). Application of operant conditioning
procedures to the behavior problems of an autistic child: A follow-up
and extension. Behavior Research and Therapy, 5(2), 103–111.
Wolpe, J. (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford,
CA: Stanford University Press.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
By the end of this section, you will be able to: * Explain how
people with psychological disorders have been treated throughout the
ages * Discuss deinstitutionalization * Discuss the ways in which
mental health services are delivered today * Distinguish between
voluntary and involuntary treatment
Before we explore the various approaches to therapy used today, let’s
begin our study of therapy by looking at how many people experience
mental illness and how many receive treatment. According to the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services (2013), 19% of U.S. adults
experienced mental illness in 2012. For teens (ages 13–18), the rate is
similar to that of adults, and for children ages 8–15, current estimates
suggest that 13% experience mental illness in a given year (National
Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], n.d.-a)
With many different treatment options available, approximately how many
people receive mental health treatment per year? According to the
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), in
2008, 13.4% of adults received treatment for a mental health issue
(NIMH, n.d.-b). These percentages, shown in
[link], reflect the number of adults
who received care in inpatient and outpatient settings and/or used
prescription medication for psychological disorders.
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_AdultTreat}
Children and adolescents also receive mental health services. The
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s National Health and
Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) found that approximately half
(50.6%) of children with mental disorders had received treatment for
their disorder within the past year (NIMH, n.d.-c). However, there were
some differences between treatment rates by category of disorder
([link]). For example, children with
anxiety disorders were least likely to have received treatment in the
past year, while children with ADHD or a conduct disorder were more
likely to receive treatment. Can you think of some possible reasons for
these differences in receiving treatment?
{:
#CNX_Psych_16_01_ChildTreat}
Considering the many forms of treatment for mental health disorders
available today, how did these forms of treatment emerge? Let’s take a
look at the history of mental health treatment from the past (with some
questionable approaches in light of modern understanding of mental
illness) to where we are today.
For much of history, the mentally ill have been treated very poorly. It
was believed that mental illness was caused by demonic possession,
witchcraft, or an angry god (Szasz, 1960). For example, in medieval
times, abnormal behaviors were viewed as a sign that a person was
possessed by demons. If someone was considered to be possessed, there
were several forms of treatment to release spirits from the individual.
The most common treatment was exorcism, often conducted by priests or
other religious figures: Incantations and prayers were said over the
person’s body, and she may have been given some medicinal drinks.
Another form of treatment for extreme cases of mental illness was
trephining: A small hole was made in the afflicted individual’s skull to
release spirits from the body. Most people treated in this manner died.
In addition to exorcism and trephining, other practices involved
execution or imprisonment of people with psychological disorders. Still
others were left to be homeless beggars. Generally speaking, most people
who exhibited strange behaviors were greatly misunderstood and treated
cruelly. The prevailing theory of psychopathology in earlier history was
the idea that mental illness was the result of demonic possession by
either an evil spirit or an evil god because early beliefs incorrectly
attributed all unexplainable phenomena to deities deemed either good or
evil.
From the late 1400s to the late 1600s, a common belief perpetuated by
some religious organizations was that some people made pacts with the
devil and committed horrible acts, such as eating babies (Blumberg,
2007). These people were considered to be witches and were tried and
condemned by courts—they were often burned at the stake. Worldwide, it
is estimated that tens of thousands of mentally ill people were killed
after being accused of being witches or under the influence of
witchcraft (Hemphill, 1966)
By the 18th century, people who were considered odd and unusual were
placed in asylums ([link]). Asylums{:
data-type=“term”} were the first institutions created for the specific
purpose of housing people with psychological disorders, but the focus
was ostracizing them from society rather than treating their disorders.
Often these people were kept in windowless dungeons, beaten, chained to
their beds, and had little to no contact with caregivers.
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Goya}
In the late 1700s, a French physician, Philippe Pinel{:
data-type=“term” .no-emphasis}, argued for more humane treatment of the
mentally ill. He suggested that they be unchained and talked to, and
that’s just what he did for patients at La Salpêtrière in Paris in 1795
([link]). Patients benefited from this more
humane treatment, and many were able to leave the hospital.
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Pinel}
In the 19th century, Dorothea Dixpastehere
led reform efforts for mental health care in the United States
([link]). She investigated how those who are
mentally ill and poor were cared for, and she discovered an underfunded
and unregulated system that perpetuated abuse of this population
(Tiffany, 1891). Horrified by her findings, Dix began lobbying various
state legislatures and the U.S. Congress for change (Tiffany, 1891). Her
efforts led to the creation of the first mental asylums in the United
States.
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Dix}
Despite reformers’ efforts, however, a typical asylum was filthy,
offered very little treatment, and often kept people for decades. At
Willard Psychiatric Center in upstate New York, for example, one
treatment was to submerge patients in cold baths for long periods of
time. Electroshock treatment was also used, and the way the treatment
was administered often broke patients’ backs; in 1943, doctors at
Willard administered 1,443 shock treatments (Willard Psychiatric Center,
2009). (Electroshock is now called electroconvulsive treatment, and the
therapy is still used, but with safeguards and under anesthesia. A brief
application of electric stimulus is used to produce a generalized
seizure. Controversy continues over its effectiveness versus the side
effects.) Many of the wards and rooms were so cold that a glass of water
would be frozen by morning (Willard Psychiatric Center, 2009). Willard’s
doors were not closed until 1995. Conditions like these remained
commonplace until well into the 20th century.
Starting in 1954 and gaining popularity in the 1960s, antipsychotic
medications were introduced. These proved a tremendous help in
controlling the symptoms of certain psychological disorders, such as
psychosis. Psychosis was a common diagnosis of individuals in mental
hospitals, and it was often evidenced by symptoms like hallucinations
and delusions, indicating a loss of contact with reality. Then in 1963,
Congress passed and John F. Kennedy signed the Mental Retardation
Facilities and Community Mental Health Centers Construction Act, which
provided federal support and funding for community mental health centers
(National Institutes of Health, 2013). This legislation changed how
mental health services were delivered in the United States. It started
the process of deinstitutionalization{: data-type=“term”}, the
closing of large asylums, by providing for people to stay in their
communities and be treated locally. In 1955, there were 558,239 severely
mentally ill patients institutionalized at public hospitals (Torrey,
1997). By 1994, by percentage of the population, there were 92% fewer
hospitalized individuals (Torrey, 1997).
Today, there are community mental health centers across the nation. They
are located in neighborhoods near the homes of clients, and they provide
large numbers of people with mental health services of various kinds and
for many kinds of problems. Unfortunately, part of what occurred with
deinstitutionalization was that those released from institutions were
supposed to go to newly created centers, but the system was not set up
effectively. Centers were underfunded, staff was not trained to handle
severe illnesses such as schizophrenia, there was high staff burnout,
and no provision was made for the other services people needed, such as
housing, food, and job training. Without these supports, those people
released under deinstitutionalization often ended up homeless. Even
today, a large portion of the homeless population is considered to be
mentally ill ([link]). Statistics show
that 26% of homeless adults living in shelters experience mental illness
(U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development [HUD], 2011).
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Homeless}
Another group of the mentally ill population is involved in the
corrections system. According to a 2006 special report by the Bureau of
Justice Statistics (BJS), approximately 705,600 mentally ill adults were
incarcerated in the state prison system, and another 78,800 were
incarcerated in the federal prison system. A further 479,000 were in
local jails. According to the study, “people with mental illnesses are
overrepresented in probation and parole populations at estimated rates
ranging from two to four times the general population” (Prins & Draper,
2009, p. 23). The Treatment Advocacy Center reported that the growing
number of mentally ill inmates has placed a burden on the correctional
system (Torrey et al., 2014).
Today, instead of asylums, there are psychiatric hospitals run by state
governments and local community hospitals focused on short-term care. In
all types of hospitals, the emphasis is on short-term stays, with the
average length of stay being less than two weeks and often only several
days. This is partly due to the very high cost of psychiatric
hospitalization, which can be about $800 to $1000 per night (Stensland,
Watson, & Grazier, 2012). Therefore, insurance coverage often limits the
length of time a person can be hospitalized for treatment. Usually
individuals are hospitalized only if they are an imminent threat to
themselves or others.
See also
View this timeline showing the
history of mental institutions in the United States.
Most people suffering from mental illnesses are not hospitalized. If
someone is feeling very depressed, complains of hearing voices, or feels
anxious all the time, he or she might seek psychological treatment. A
friend, spouse, or parent might refer someone for treatment. The
individual might go see his primary care physician first and then be
referred to a mental health practitioner.
Some people seek treatment because they are involved with the state’s
child protective services—that is, their children have been removed from
their care due to abuse or neglect. The parents might be referred to
psychiatric or substance abuse facilities and the children would likely
receive treatment for trauma. If the parents are interested in and
capable of becoming better parents, the goal of treatment might be
family reunification. For other children whose parents are unable to
change—for example, the parent or parents who are heavily addicted to
drugs and refuse to enter treatment—the goal of therapy might be to help
the children adjust to foster care and/or adoption
([link]).
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Children}
Some people seek therapy because the criminal justice system referred
them or required them to go. For some individuals, for example,
attending weekly counseling sessions might be a condition of parole. If
an individual is mandated to attend therapy, she is seeking services
involuntarily. Involuntary treatment{: data-type=“term”} refers to
therapy that is not the individual’s choice. Other individuals might
voluntarily seek treatment. Voluntary treatment{:
data-type=“term”} means the person chooses to attend therapy to obtain
relief from symptoms.
Psychological treatment can occur in a variety of places. An individual
might go to a community mental health center or a practitioner in
private or community practice. A child might see a school counselor,
school psychologist, or school social worker. An incarcerated person
might receive group therapy in prison. There are many different types of
treatment providers, and licensing requirements vary from state to
state. Besides psychologists and psychiatrists, there are clinical
social workers, marriage and family therapists, and trained religious
personnel who also perform counseling and therapy.
A range of funding sources pay for mental health treatment: health
insurance, government, and private pay. In the past, even when people
had health insurance, the coverage would not always pay for mental
health services. This changed with the Mental Health Parity and
Addiction Equity Act of 2008, which requires group health plans and
insurers to make sure there is parity of mental health services (U.S.
Department of Labor, n.d.). This means that co-pays, total number of
visits, and deductibles for mental health and substance abuse treatment
need to be equal to and cannot be more restrictive or harsher than those
for physical illnesses and medical/surgical problems.
Finding treatment sources is also not always easy: there may be limited
options, especially in rural areas and low-income urban areas; waiting
lists; poor quality of care available for indigent patients; and
financial obstacles such as co-pays, deductibles, and time off from
work. Over 85% of the l,669 federally designated mental health
professional shortage areas are rural; often primary care physicians and
law enforcement are the first-line mental health providers (Ivey,
Scheffler, & Zazzali, 1998), although they do not have the specialized
training of a mental health professional, who often would be better
equipped to provide care. Availability, accessibility, and acceptability
(the stigma attached to mental illness) are all problems in rural areas.
Approximately two-thirds of those with symptoms receive no care at all
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2005; Wagenfeld, Murray,
Mohatt, & DeBruiynb, 1994). At the end of 2013, the U.S. Department of
Agriculture announced an investment of $50 million to help improve
access and treatment for mental health problems as part of the Obama
administration’s effort to strengthen rural communities.
It was once believed that people with psychological disorders, or those
exhibiting strange behavior, were possessed by demons. These people were
forced to take part in exorcisms, were imprisoned, or executed. Later,
asylums were built to house the mentally ill, but the patients received
little to no treatment, and many of the methods used were cruel.
Philippe Pinel and Dorothea Dix argued for more humane treatment of
people with psychological disorders. In the mid-1960s, the
deinstitutionalization movement gained support and asylums were closed,
enabling people with mental illness to return home and receive treatment
in their own communities. Some did go to their family homes, but many
became homeless due to a lack of resources and support mechanisms.
Today, instead of asylums, there are psychiatric hospitals run by state
governments and local community hospitals, with the emphasis on
short-term stays. However, most people suffering from mental illness are
not hospitalized. A person suffering symptoms could speak with a primary
care physician, who most likely would refer him to someone who
specializes in therapy. The person can receive outpatient mental health
services from a variety of sources, including psychologists,
psychiatrists, marriage and family therapists, school counselors,
clinical social workers, and religious personnel. These therapy sessions
would be covered through insurance, government funds, or private (self)
pay.
Question
Who of the following does not support the humane and improved
treatment of mentally ill persons?
Philippe Pinel
medieval priests
Dorothea Dix
All of the above {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
B
Question
The process of closing large asylums and providing for people to
stay in the community to be treated locally is known as ________.
deinstitutionalization
exorcism
deactivation
decentralization {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Joey was convicted of domestic violence. As part of his sentence,
the judge has ordered that he attend therapy for anger management.
This is considered ________ treatment.
involuntary
voluntary
forced
mandatory {: type=“a”}
Check Answer
A
Question
Today, most people with psychological problems are not
hospitalized. Typically they are only hospitalized if they
________.
People with psychological disorders have been treated poorly
throughout history. Describe some efforts to improve treatment,
include explanations for the success or lack thereof.
Beginning in the Middle Ages and up until the mid-20th century,
the mentally ill were misunderstood and treated cruelly. In the
1700s, Philippe Pinel advocated for patients to be unchained, and
he was able to affect this in a Paris hospital. In the 1800s,
Dorothea Dix urged the government to provide better funded and
regulated care, which led to the creation of asylums, but
treatment generally remained quite poor. Federally mandated
deinstitutionalization in the 1960s began the elimination of
asylums, but it was often inadequate in providing the
infrastructure for replacement treatment.
Usually someone is hospitalized only if they are an imminent
threat to themselves or others. Describe a situation that might
meet these criteria.
Frank is severely depressed. He lost his job one year ago and has
not been able to find another one. A few months after losing his
job, his home was foreclosed and his wife left him. Lately, he has
been thinking that he would be better off dead. He’s begun giving
his possessions away and has purchased a handgun. He plans to kill
himself on what would have been his 20th wedding anniversary,
which is coming up in a few weeks.
Do you think there is a stigma associated with mentally ill
persons today? Why or why not?
What are some places in your community that offer mental health
services? Would you feel comfortable seeking assistance at one of
these facilities? Why or why not?
therapy that a person chooses to attend in order to obtain relief
from her symptoms
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
Copyright Notice
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
This work is (being) adapted from on OpenStax Psychology 2e which is licensed under creative commons attribution 4.0 license. We license our work under a similar license.
If you copy, adapt, remix or build up on work, you must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner,
but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
{:}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_01_PsycheEros}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_04_Hooding}
{:
#CNX_Psych_01_04_Employed}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_03_NervSystem}
{:
#CNX_Psych_01_03_DuckRabbit}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_03_Piaget}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_03_BigFive}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_03_BioPsych}
{:
#CNX_Psych_01_03_CogBehav}
{:
#CNX_Psych_01_02_Wundt}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_James}
{:
#CNX_Psych_01_02_Freud}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Watson}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Skinner}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Maslow}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Rogers}
{: #CNX_Psych_01_02_Chomsky}
{:}
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_01_trephining}
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_01_DARE}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_01_Reasoning}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_01_Method}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_01_freud}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_02_policecar}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_02_goodall}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_03_survey}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_03_records}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_03_cigarettes}
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_04_scatter}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_04_cereal}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_04_moon}
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_05_toygun}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_05_placebo}
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_05_variables}
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_05_sample}
{:
#CNX_Psych_02_05_vaccine}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_06_irb}
{: #CNX_Psych_02_06_rat}
{:}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_SickleCell}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_Darwin}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_01_GenoPheno}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_Punnett1}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_Punnett2}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_01_GeneEnviro}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_02_Neuron}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_02_Synapse}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_02_NaKConc}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_02_ActionP}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_02_Reuptake}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_03_Autonomic}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_CorpusCall}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_FMHBrain}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_Lobes}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_GageSkull}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_BrainOrg}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_Broca}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_Thalamus}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_Limbic}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_Midbrain}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_Hindbrain}
{:
#CNX_Psych_03_04_CT}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_PET}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_fMRI}
{: #CNX_Psych_03_04_EEG}
{:}
{: #Figure_04_02_SleepEEG}
{: #Figure_04_02_Pituitary}
{:
#Figure_04_03_SleepCycle}
{:
#Figure_04_03_Stages}
{:
#Figure_04_03_Stage2}
{: #Figure_04_03_Deltawaves}
{: #Figure_04_03_REM}
{:
#Figure_04_03_Hypnogram}
{: #Figure_04_05_DrugChart}
{: #Figure_04_05_Drugtypes}
{: #Figure_04_05_Crackrock}
{: #Figure_04_05_Stimulants}
{: #Figure_04_05_Heroin}
{:
#Figure_04_05_Psychedelic}
{:
#Figure_04_05_Marijuana}
{: #Figure_04_06_Hypnotist}
{:
#Figure_04_06_Buddha}
{:}
{: #Figure_05_01_Cross}
{: #Figure_05_01_MullerLyer}
{: #Figure_05_02_Wave}
{: #Figure_05_02_Frequencies}
{: #Figure_05_02_Spectrum}
{: #Figure_05_02_VisSpec}
{:
#Figure_05_03_Eyes}
{:
#Figure_05_03_Eye}
{:
#Figure_05_03_RodsCones}
{: #Figure_05_03_OpticChias}
{:
#Figure_05_03_Trichrom}
{:
#Figure_05_03_Afterimage}
{: #Figure_05_03_LinPerspec}
{:
#Figure_05_04_Ear}
{:
#Figure_05_04_MonInt}
{: #Figure_05_04_EnFactors}
{: #Figure_05_05_TasteBud}
{:
#Figure_05_05_OlfacRecep}
{: #Figure_05_05_Touch}
{:
#Figure_05_05_Vestibular}
{: #Figure_05_06_FacesVase}
{:
#Figure_05_06_Proximity}
{:
#Figure_05_06_Similarity}
{: #Figure_05_06_Continuity}
{: #Figure_05_06_Closure}
{: #Figure_05_06_DuckRabbit}
{: #Figure_07_00_Thinking}
{: #Figure_07_01_Brain}
{: #Figure_07_01_Gandhi}
{:
#Figure_07_01_SnowShapes}
{: #Figure_07_01_Elevator}
{:
#Figure_07_01_Texting}
{: #Figure_07_02_Saudade}
{:
#Figure_07_03_Sudoku}
{: #Figure_07_03_DotsAndLines}
{: #Figure_07_03_SamLoyd}
{:
#Figure_07_03_Solutions}
{:
#Figure_07_04_Triarchic}
{: #Figure_07_05_ChildIQ}
{: #Figure_07_05_Bell}
{: #Figure_07_05_Bell2}
{:
#Figure_07_06_Correlations}
{: #Figure_07_06_Dyslexia}
{:
#Figure_08_02_Brain}
{:
#Figure_08_02_911}
{: #Figure_08_03_Coins}
{:
#Figure_08_03_Soldiers}
{: #Figure_08_04_Knuckles}
{: #Figure_08_04_Study}
{:
#Figure_09_00_Hands}
{: #Figure_09_01_Develop}
{: #Figure_09_01_Play}
{:
#Figure_09_03_Erikson}
{:
#Figure_09_03_Piaget}
{:
#Figure_09_03_KohlStage}
{:
#Figure_09_02_Conception}
{: #Figure_09_02_Stages}
{: #Figure_09_02_Prenatal}
{: #Figure_09_04_Growth}
{: #Figure_09_04_TruckBox}
{:
#Figure_09_04_Game}
{: #Figure_09_04_BabySmile}
{: #Figure_09_04_Secure}
{: #Figure_09_04_Adolescent}
{:
#Figure_09_04_TeenBrain}
{: #Figure_09_04_Reasoning}
{:
#Figure_09_04_Exercise}
{:
#Figure_09_04_Cognitive}
{: #Figure_09_04_Support}
{: #Figure_09_05_Cemetery}
{:}
{: #Figure_10_01_Motivation}
{: #Figure_10_01_Bakery}
{: #Figure_10_01_WilliamJ}
{: #Figure_10_01_Eating}
{: #Figure_10_01_Arousal}
{: #Figure_10_01_YerkesDod}
{: #Figure_10_01_Maslow}
{: #Figure_10_02_Hunger}
{:
#Figure_10_02_BodyMass}
{: #Figure_10_02_Bariatric}
{:
#Figure_10_02_Obesity}
{: #Figure_10_02_Model}
{: #Figure_10_03_Rats}
{:
#Figure_10_03_SexBrain}
{:
#Figure_10_03_Kinsey}
{: #Figure_10_03_SexReponse}
{:
#Figure_10_03_GayMales}
{: #Figure_10_03_Transgend}
{: #Figure_10_04_HappySad}
{: #Figure_10_04_Theories}
{:
#Figure_10_04_Limbic}
{:
#Figure_10_04_Amygdala}
{: #Figure_10_04_Expressions}
{: #Figure_11_00_Siblings}
{: #Figure_11_01_Masks}
{: #Figure_11_01_Phrenology}
{:
#Figure_11_01_FourTemper}
{: #Figure_11_02_Iceberg}
{: #Figure_16_02_Superego}
{: #Figure_11_02_Defense}
{: #CNX_Psych_11_03_Adler}
{: #CNX_Psych_11_03_Jung}
{:
#Figure_11_04_RecipDeter}
{: #Figure_11_04_Control}
{:
#Figure_11_06_Somatotype}
{:
#Figure_11_07_Eysenck}
{: #Figure_11_04_Quadrants}
{: #Figure_11_07_BigFive}
{: #Figure_11_08_Clusters}
{: #Figure_11_09_Likert}
{: #Figure_11_09_MMPI}
{: #Figure_11_09_ISB}
{:}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_01_helping}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_01_quizshow}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_01_cultures}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_01_biasgraph}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_01_winning}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_01_homeless}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_02_classroom}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_02_preteens}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_02_AbuGhraib}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_03_dissonance}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_03_marines}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_03_justification}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_03_persuasion}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_03_Persuasion2}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_03_signs}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_04_Asch}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_04_voting}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_04_audience}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_04_milgram}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_04_freethrow}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_05_Discrimination}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_05_woman}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_05_children}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_06_dominance}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_06_cyberbully}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_06_altruism}
{:
#CNX_Psych_12_07_wedding}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_07_love}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_07_couple}
{: #CNX_Psych_12_07_exchange}
{: #CNX_Psych_13_00_IOPsych}
{: #CNX_Psych_13_01_IOTypes}
{: #CNX_Psych_13_01_HumFact}
{: #CNX_Psych_13_01_Hawthorne}
{: #CNX_Psych_13_01_Employees}
{:
#CNX_Psych_13_01_Taylor}
{:
#CNX_Psych_13_01_Gilbreth}
{: #CNX_Psych_13_02_Training}
{:
#CNX_Psych_13_02_360Degree}
{: #CNX_Psych_13_02_Discrimin}
{:
#CNX_Psych_13_02_Discrimin2}
{: #CNX_Psych_13_02_Hooters}
{: #CNX_Psych_13_03_Merger}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_00_College}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_Graduation}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_Appraisals}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_Performance}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_01_StressRise}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_StressLev}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_01_Cannon}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_FightFlight}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_Hans_Selye}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_01_Adaptation}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_01_HPAAxis}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_02_Moving}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_02_DailyHass}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_02_Guard}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_StressCold}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_Telomeres}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_Symptoms}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_03_TypeAB}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_Transactional}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_HeartAtt}
{:
#CNX_Psych_14_03_Asthma}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_04_Helpless}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_04_SocialSupport}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_04_StressRed}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_05_Happiness}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_05_Denmark}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_05_Cubs}
{: #CNX_Psych_14_05_AdaptationCh}
{:
#Figure_15_11_Immunogen}
{: #Figure_15_06_Memorial}
{: #Figure_15_10_Riskfactor}
{:
#Figure_15_00_NavyYard}
{:
#Figure_15_07_Moods}
{: #Figure_15_07_Neurons}
{: #Figure_15_07_SadFace}
{: #Figure_15_07_GxE_Interaction}
{: #Figure_15_05_OCD}
{:
#Figure_15_05_Hoarding}
{:
#Figure_15_05_Orbito}
{: #Figure_15_04_Panic}
{:
#Figure_15_04_Worry}
{:
#Figure_15_03_Madness}
{: #Figure_15_03_Mania}
{: #Figure_15_03_Heritability}
{: #Figure_15_01_Red_Hair}
{: #Figure_15_01_Eye_Contact}
{: #Figure_15_02_Disorders}
{: #Figure_15_02_Comorbidity}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_05_Ethnic}
{:
#CNX_Psych_16_04_DrugSurvey}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_04_Crack}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_03_OneonOne}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_03_HandHead}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_03_Group}
{:
#CNX_Psych_16_02_Cognitive}
{:
#CNX_Psych_16_02_FreudCouch}
{:
#CNX_Psych_16_02_Sandtray}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_02_Conditioning}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_02_Spider}
{:
#CNX_Psych_16_02_Cognitive}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_00_Therapy}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_AdultTreat}
{:
#CNX_Psych_16_01_ChildTreat}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Goya}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Pinel}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Dix}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Homeless}
{: #CNX_Psych_16_01_Children}
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychologypastehere focuses on how we interact with and relate to others. Social psychologists conduct research on a wide variety of topics that include differences in how we explain our own behavior versus how we explain the behaviors of others, prejudice, and attraction, and how we resolve interpersonal conflicts. Social psychologists have also sought to determine how being among other people changes our own behavior and patterns of thinking.
There are many interesting examples of social psychological research, and you will read about many of these in a later chapter of this textbook. Until then, you will be introduced to one of the most controversial psychological studies ever conducted. Stanley Milgrampastehere was an American social psychologist who is most famous for research that he conducted on obedience. After the holocaust, in 1961, a Nazi war criminal, Adolf Eichmann, who was accused of committing mass atrocities, was put on trial. Many people wondered how German soldiers were capable of torturing prisoners in concentration camps, and they were unsatisfied with the excuses given by soldiers that they were simply following orders. At the time, most psychologists agreed that few people would be willing to inflict such extraordinary pain and suffering, simply because they were obeying orders. Milgram decided to conduct research to determine whether or not this was true ([link]). As you will read later in the text, Milgram found that nearly two-thirds of his participants were willing to deliver what they believed to be lethal shocks to another person, simply because they were instructed to do so by an authority figure (in this case, a man dressed in a lab coat). This was in spite of the fact that participants received payment for simply showing up for the research study and could have chosen not to inflict pain or more serious consequences on another person by withdrawing from the study. No one was actually hurt or harmed in any way, Milgram’s experiment was a clever ruse that took advantage of research confederates, those who pretend to be participants in a research study who are actually working for the researcher and have clear, specific directions on how to behave during the research study (Hock, 2009). Milgram’s and others’ studies that involved deception and potential emotional harm to study participants catalyzed the development of ethical guidelines for conducting psychological research that discourage the use of deception of research subjects, unless it can be argued not to cause harm and, in general, requiring informed consent of participants.