Theories of Learning Best-Choice Questions

The following are some free practice questions on this chapter. For answers and explanations, google Psychiatry Question Bank Justpsychiatry.

  1. In which type of learning does a neutral stimulus cause a response?

    1. Classical conditioning

    2. Latent learning

    3. Observational learning

    4. Operant conditioning

    5. Social learning

BCQ

Keeping the principles of conditioning theories in mind, which one of the following is a stimulus that does not initially cause a response?

  1. Neutral stimulus

  2. Primary reinforcer

  3. Prompt

  4. Secondary reinforcer

  5. Unconditioned stimulus

  1. Considering the principles of conditioning theories, which one refers to a situation or event that reflexively and automatically triggers a response?

    1. Motor reflex

    2. Neutral stimulus

    3. Primary reinforcer

    4. Unconditioned reaction

    5. Unconditioned stimulus

  2. A therapist is helping a patient learn social skills. One skill the therapist wants him to develop is a social smile. He gave him an exercise to smile every time he greets someone, with the underlying intention to make him likeable and pleasant. If he does this as advised, what would be the reinforcement schedule for his social contacts?

    1. Continuous

    2. Fixed-Interval

    3. Fixed Ratio

    4. Variable-Interval

    5. Variable-Ratio

  3. According to the psychologist who conducted the Bobo doll experiment, young children can learn by watching other children. Who founded this type of learning?

    1. Albert Bandura

    2. BF Skinner

    3. Edward Thorndike

    4. John Watson

    5. Pavlov

  4. According to the theory of social learning, which one refers to a person who can influence people with positive or negative behaviour?

    1. Antisocial Model

    2. Leader

    3. Modeller

    4. Prosocial Model

    5. Role Model

  5. In which one of the following does trial and error learning lead to an association of stimuli and responses?

    1. Classical conditioning

    2. Latent learning

    3. Observational learning

    4. Operant conditioning

    5. The law of effect

  6. Any response followed by a satisfying situation is likely to be repeated, while behaviours resulting in an annoying situation are less likely to occur. Which one of the following does it describe?

    1. Classical conditioning

    2. Latent learning

    3. Observational learning

    4. Operant conditioning

    5. The law of effect

  7. Years after Pavlov described classical conditioning, a theorist pointed out how classical conditioning explained automatically-elicited behaviours but not the more complex voluntarily emitted behaviours. Who was this person?

    1. BF Skinner

    2. Freud

    3. Ivan Pavlov

    4. LL Thurstone

    5. Piaget

  8. Which one of these refers to a relatively stable change in behaviour due to experience:

    1. Continuation

    2. Development

    3. Learning

    4. Temperament

    5. Trait

  9. From the perspective of learning theories, which one refers to something in the environment a person can react to or respond to?

    1. Contingency

    2. Reaction

    3. Reinforcer

    4. Response

    5. Stimulus

  10. From the perspective of learning theories, which one refers to behaviour or reaction to something in the environment?

    1. Consequence

    2. Pairing

    3. Reinforcer

    4. Response

    5. Stimulus

  1. Considering the principles of conditioning theories, which one refers to an automatic reaction to the unconditioned stimulus?

    1. Conditioned Reaction

    2. Conditioned Response

    3. Primary outcome

    4. Unconditioned Reaction

    5. Unconditioned Response

  2. Which one of the following refers to developing a new response or learning?

    1. Acquisition

    2. Discrimination

    3. Extinction

    4. Fading

    5. Generalisation

  3. Lessening a learned response:

    1. Acquisition

    2. Discrimination

    3. Extinction

    4. Fading

    5. Generalisation

  1. The famous early physician who, while studying the digestion of dogs, discovered classical conditioning:

    1. Abraham Maslow

    2. Albert Bandura

    3. BF Skinner

    4. Ivan Pavlov

    5. John Watson

  2. Keeping the learning principles in mind, which one of these refers to the tendency to emit a similar response to two “almost similar” stimuli?

    1. Acquisition

    2. Discrimination

    3. Extinction

    4. Generalisation

    5. Indifference

  1. According to this perspective, psychology should be restricted to studying observable behaviours:

    1. Behaviourism

    2. Cognitive

    3. Freudism

    4. Humanism

    5. Nature v Nurture

  1. According to the principles of operant conditioning, what term is used for something that happens after the subject emits a behaviour? #. Consequence #. Outcome #. Reinforcement #. Result #. Stimuli

  2. Psychologist who developed the principle and techniques of operant

    conditioning: #. BF Skinner #. Edward Thorndike #. Ivan Pavlov #. John Watson #. Rosalie Rayner

  3. Any consequence that increases the future likelihood of a behaviour:

Reinforcement refers to any consequences that increase the future likelihood of a behaviour. Punishment always decreases behaviour. When the results are attained by removing a stimulus, it would be negative reinforcement or punishment. When the results are attained by adding something, we call it positive reinforcement or punishment.

Negative punishment

Positive reinforcement

Punishment

*Reinforcement

Unconditioned response

Learning theories

  1. Increasing behaviour by following it with a desirable consequence:

Increasing a behaviour by following it with a desirable outcome is an example of positive reinforcement. A reinforcement always increases a behaviour. Punishment decreases behaviour. When we attain the results by removing a stimulus, it is negative reinforcement or punishment. When the results are attained by adding something, we call it positive reinforcement or positive punishment.

Negative Punishment

Negative Reinforcement

Positive Punishment

*Positive Reinforcement

Reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. Increasing behaviour by removing undesirable consequences that is, taking away what they do not want:

A reinforcement always increases a behaviour. Punishment always decreases a behaviour. When the results are attained by removal of a stimulus, etc., it would be negative reinforcement or punishment. When the results are attained by adding something, we call it positive reinforcement or punishment.

Avoidance learning

Negative Punishment

*Negative Reinforcement

Positive Punishment

Positive Reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. Which one of these best fits “getting paid ten dollars an hour to stay away from alcohol”?

Staying away from alcohol for an hour leads to positive outcomes. This exemplifies positive reinforcement. A reinforcer always increases a behaviour.

Contingent reinforcement

Negative Punishment

*Negative Reinforcement

Positive Punishment

Positive Reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. A 20-year-old man with obsessive-compulsive personality disorder feels distressed to notice anything messy in his room. He has a habit of cleaning his room to get rid of even slight clutter. This is an example of:

A messy room creates feelings of distress in this patient. When he cleans the room, he successfully gets rid of the distress. The behaviour of cleaning the room removes an unpleasant feeling. Thus, it is negative reinforcement.

Associative learning

Negative Punishment

*Negative Reinforcement

Positive Punishment

Positive Reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. Having to clean up the whole house after argumentation with mother:

Positive punishment.

Escape learning

Negative Punishment

Negative Reinforcement

*Positive punishment

Positive Reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. Having a cell phone privilege taken away after cheating on a test would be an example of:

Negative punishment

Avoidance learning

*Negative Punishment

Negative Reinforcement

Positive Punishment

Positive Reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. We present consequences within a few seconds to a minute of the behaviour:

Contingency means the reinforcer should only be available when the target behaviour has been performed. Immediacy means the reinforcer should be delivered immediately after the target behaviour. Reinforcement delayed may not reinforce the target behaviour.

Contingency

Fading

*Immediacy

Reinforcer

Shaping

Learning theories

  1. Something that is learned to have value is a:

A secondary reinforcer, for example, money. It gains value through classical conditioning but can then be a reinforcer in operant conditioning.

Artificial reinforcer

Conditioned stimulus

Primary Reinforcer

*Secondary Reinforcer

Unnatural Reinforcer

Learning theories

  1. A reward that follows every time the subject makes the correct response:

This is continuous reinforcement. It is less resistant to extinction compared to intermittent reinforcement schedules.

*Continuous reinforcement

Fixed-interval reinforcement

Fixed ratio reinforcement

Partial reinforcement

Serial reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. What is the reinforcement schedule when we reward the correct response after a set duration of time?

The reinforcement schedule is fixed-interval when the subject receives a reward after a fixed duration of time.

*Fixed-Interval

Fixed ratio

Interval schedule

Variable-Interval

Variable-Ratio

Learning theories

  1. A child with an intellectual disability has problem behaviours. He is rewarded for wanted behaviours every 12 hours on average, the third time he exhibits the wanted behaviour in the specified 12 hours duration of the day. What is the schedule of reinforcement?

Rewards a correct behaviour after an unpredictable amount of time.

Continuous

Fixed-Interval

Fixed Ratio

*Variable-Interval

Variable-Ratio

Learning theories

  1. A parent rewards a child after a certain number of correct behaviours. What schedule of reinforcement is being utilised?

Fixed ratio.

Continuous

Fixed-Interval

*Fixed Ratio

Variable-Interval

Variable-Ratio

Learning theories

  1. A child is showing tantrums at an increasing frequency. When he shows such behaviour, his parents’ attention turns toward him, getting what he wants. What reinforcement schedule are they using?

This is continuous reinforcement. It is less resistant to extinction compared to intermittent reinforcement schedules.

*Continuous

Fixed-Interval

Fixed Ratio

Variable-Interval

Variable-Ratio

Learning theories

  1. People develop an addiction to Gambling that is difficult to get rid of because the reinforcement schedule used is:

Variable-ratio.

Continuous

Fixed-Interval

Fixed Ratio

Variable-Interval

*Variable-Ratio

Learning theories

  1. The process by which a stimulus or an event follows a behaviour increases the probability of the behaviour happening again. This best defines:

The best answer would be c) reinforcement.

Incubation

Punishment

*Reinforcement

Reinforcer

Shaping

Learning theories

  1. These are inherently desirable and do not acquire reinforcing value through experience:

The best answer would be d) primary unconditioned reinforcers. Primary unconditioned reinforcers: Inherently desirable and do not acquire reinforcing value through experience. For example, food. Generalised secondary reinforcers: Acquire reinforcing value through their association with a primary reinforcer. For example, a token reinforces because it is associated with a naturally reinforcing stimulus.

Generalised secondary reinforcers

Natural reinforcers

Primary conditioned reinforcers

*Primary unconditioned reinforcers

Tertiary unconditioned reinforcers

Learning theories

  1. These acquire reinforcing value through their association with a primary reinforcer:

The best answer would be a) generalised secondary reinforcers. Primary unconditioned reinforcers: Inherently desirable and do not acquire reinforcing value through experience, for example, food. Generalised secondary reinforcers: Acquire reinforcing value through their association with a primary reinforcer. For example, a token is reinforcing because it is associated with a naturally reinforcing stimulus.

*Generalised secondary reinforcers

Natural reinforcers

Primary conditioned reinforcers

Primary unconditioned reinforcers

Tertiary unconditioned reinforcers

Learning theories

  1. Adding a positive stimulus to increase behaviour or providing something pleasant, for example, receiving a gold star for a good piece of homework:

The best answer would be d) positive reinforcement.

Negative punishment

Negative reinforcement

Positive punishment

*Positive reinforcement

Shaping behaviour

Learning theories

  1. Taking away a negative stimulus to increase behaviour or taking away something unpleasant which in turn strengthens the behaviour:

Negative reinforcement.

Negative punishment

*Negative reinforcement

Positive punishment

Positive reinforcement

Shaping behaviour

Learning theories

  1. Add negative stimulus to decrease behaviour or provide something unpleasant, for example, writing lines for not doing homework. This would best describe:

The best answer would be positive punishment. In terms of operant conditioning, punishment always leads to a decrease in behaviour. When we achieve the said result by adding a stimulus, it would be positive punishment, while negative punishment occurs when removing an aversive stimulus.

Negative punishment

Negative reinforcement

*Positive punishment

Positive reinforcement

Shaping behaviour

Learning theories

  1. Removing a positive stimulus to decrease behaviour or taking away something pleasant, for example, losing lunch break for not doing homework. This best describes:

The best answer would be a) negative punishment. In terms of operant conditioning, anything decreasing a behaviour is a punishment. A reinforcement always leads to an increased likelihood of the behaviour. “Positive” refers to applying a stimulus, while “Negative” means withholding or removing a stimulus. A reinforcer always increases the probability or intensity of a response occurring. Punishment decreases the probability of or prevents a response from occurring.

*Negative punishment

Negative reinforcement

Positive punishment

Positive reinforcement

Shaping behaviour

Learning theories

  1. A 30-year-old man presents to you in the outpatient department for the treatment of withdrawal symptoms due to the use of opioids. He reports experiencing severe aches and pains and other such symptoms every time he stops using the opioid. Because of this, he would rush to find his next dose. The best explanation for the patient’s long term opioid use would be:

The best answer would be c) negative reinforcement. Using opioids would provide him relief from the painful symptoms, because of which he would use opioids again. The removal of the adverse experience caused an increased likelihood of behaviour. However, positive punishment also plays some role; the decreased likelihood of “not using opioids” was caused by the aversive symptoms of withdrawal.

Classical conditioning

Negative punishment

*Negative reinforcement

Positive punishment

Shaping behaviour

Learning theories

  1. While training a dog to identify thieves, a trainer gives food to the dog each time he correctly identifies the subject. What reinforcement schedule is taking place?

The best answer would be a) continuous reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcement refer to specific patterns that determine when a behaviour will be reinforced. Continuous reinforcement takes place when reinforcement occurs every time. It is the most efficient way to help acquisition. Intermittent reinforcement occurs when not every instance of behaviour is reinforced. There are four intermittent reinforcement schedules: fixed-interval, variable-interval, fixed-ratio, and variable-ratio.

*Continuous reinforcement

Fixed-interval schedule

Fixed ratio schedule

Habituation

Intermittent reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. Humans develop phobias of snakes, but not phobias of weapons like sharp razors. What best explains this?

Preparedness refers to the predisposition of a species to specific ways of conditioning. For example, humans may develop a phobia of snakes, but not knives. Martin Seligman considers this adaptive for humans in an evolutionary perspective; developing fears and phobias to environmental threats helps survival. The concept also explains conditioned taste aversion among humans.

Habituation

Latent learning

Observational learning

*Preparedness

Stimulus discrimination

Learning theories

  1. Which one of these refers to the circumstances determining whether responses cause the presentation of reinforcers?

In their most basic form, reinforcement contingencies include antecedents (events that occur immediately before a behaviour), responses or behaviours, and consequences (events that occur immediately after a behaviour). We refer to the link between these occurrences as “contingency.” and to the consequences that increase the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again in comparable circumstances as “reinforcement.” As a result, contingencies of reinforcement explain an antecedent-behaviour-consequence relationship, in which the consequence enhances the chance of a behaviour occurring again in the presence of an antecedent.

Law of effect

Operant principles

Primack principles

*Reinforcement contingencies

Reinforcement schedules

Learning theories

  1. A child is brought to you for assessment of problem behaviours. The mother gives him a toffee to calm him down whenever he cries. This happens after a specified number of responses or after a variable amount of time. What type of reinforcement is happening?

The best answer would be intermittent reinforcement.

Continuous reinforcement

*Intermittent reinforcement

Interval schedule

Non-contingent reinforcement

Ratio schedule

Learning theories

  1. Involves a specific number of behaviours to be performed before the reward is given:

The best answer would be a fixed ratio schedule.

Continuous reinforcement

Fixed-interval schedule

*Fixed ratio schedule

Habituation

Intermittent reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. Which reinforcement schedule occurs when the subject experiences reinforcement for a response emitted after equal intervals?

It occurs when we reinforce behaviour after a set time has passed. The best answer would be b) a fixed-interval schedule.

Continuous reinforcement

*a fixed-interval schedule

Fixed ratio schedule

Habituation

Intermittent reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. In which reinforcement schedule is reinforcement given for a response after a variable interval of time?

Reinforcement is given for a response after a variable interval in the variable-interval schedule. Steady but relatively low level of response. This occurs when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. Ex: delivering a food pellet to a rat after the first bar press following a 1-minute, 5 minutes, then 3-minute interval.

Continuous reinforcement

Fixed ratio schedule

Habituation

Intermittent reinforcement

*Variable-interval schedule

Learning theories

  1. We give reinforcement after a fixed number of responses. This would be:

The best answer would be b) a fixed ratio schedule. Reinforces after a set number of behaviours. Relatively High, steady rate of responding. A response is reinforced only after a given number of responses, such as delivering a food pellet to a rat after pressing a bar five times.

Continuous reinforcement

*Fixed ratio schedule

Habituation

Intermittent reinforcement

Variable-interval schedule

Learning theories

  1. Behaviour is rewarded an average number of times but is not predictable:

The best answer would be e) variable-ratio schedule. Reinforcement happens after a variable number of responses. It has the highest rate of responding and is most resistant to extinction. The response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses, for example delivering food pellets to a rat after one bar press, again after 4 bar presses, and two bar presses.

Continuous reinforcement

Habituation

Intermittent reinforcement

Variable-interval schedule

*Variable-ratio schedule

Learning theories

  1. A parent gives a child a bar of chocolate whenever he has washed his hands the first time following a one-hour interval, then during a five-hour interval, then during a three-hour interval. What is the schedule of reinforcement?

The best answer would be d) variable-interval. Behaviour is reinforced after a variable amount of time has elapsed. Steady but relatively low level of response. This occurs when a response is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. Ex: delivering a food pellet to a rat after the first bar press following a 1-minute interval, 5 minutes, then 3-minute interval.

Intermittent

Mixed interval-ratio

Non-contingent

*Variable-interval

Variable-ratio

Learning theories

  1. A toffee should only be available when the child has been calm for a specific amount of time. This is:

Contingency: The reinforcer should only be available when the target behaviour has been performed. Immediacy: The reinforcer should be delivered immediately after the target behaviour. Reinforcement delayed may not reinforce the target behaviour.

*Contingency

Extinction

Immediacy

Shaping

Stimulus discrimination

Learning theories

  1. The child should be given a toffee immediately after he has washed his face. This is:

Contingency: The reinforcer should only be available when the target behaviour has been performed. Immediacy: The reinforcer should be delivered immediately after the target behaviour. Reinforcement delayed may not reinforce the target behaviour.

Contingency

Extinction

*Immediacy

Shaping

Thinning

Learning theories

  1. The change from a continuous to intermittent reinforcement schedule once the behaviour is well-established reduces the proportion of reinforcement to the target behaviour. This is most likely:

The best answer would be e) thinning of contingency schedule.

Contingency

Extinction

Immediacy

Shaping

*Thinning of schedule

Learning theories

  1. Which one of these refers to the process by which consequences lead to a greater probability that the response will re-occur:

According to skinner, reinforcement occurs when a consequence strengthens a response, indicated by an increase in the rate of responding.

Acquisition

Association

Conditioning

Law of effect

*Reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. Which one refers to an object or event following a response that alters the chances of its recurrence?

The best answer would be reinforcer.

Consequence

Contingency

Outcome

Punisher

*Reinforcer

Learning theories

  1. The gradual process of reinforcing an organism for behaviour that gets closer to the desired behaviour:

Shaping

Contingency

Reinforcement schedule

*Shaping of behaviour

Stimulus discrimination

Stimulus generalisation

Learning theories

  1. A reward is withheld from a previously reinforced behaviour to eliminate or decrease that behaviour. There is a gradual reduction in the frequency and intensity of the response. This would be most likely:

The best answer would be operant extinction. The gradual reduction in the frequency and intensity of a response due to the elimination of a rewarding

Avoidance conditioning

Behavioural contrast

Classical extinction

Extinction burst

*Operant extinction

Learning theories

  1. A reward is withheld from a previously reinforced behaviour to eliminate or decrease that behaviour. There is a gradual reduction in the frequency or intensity of response. However, at times, there is a temporary increase in responses. This is most likely due to:

Extinction burst.

Behavioural contrast

Escape learning

*Extinction burst

Fading

Prompts

Learning theories

  1. When two different behaviours are reinforced, and then the reinforcement of one behaviour is withdrawn to extinguish it, the other behaviour is likely to increase:

Thinning of reinforcement schedule: The change from a continuous to intermittent reinforcement schedule once the behaviour is well-established, then reducing the proportion of reinforcement to target behaviour. Behavioural contrast: When two different behaviours are reinforced, and the reinforcement of one behaviour is withdrawn to extinguish it, the other is likely to increase.

*Behavioural contrast

Fading

Law of effect

Shaping

Thinning

Learning theories

  1. Which one of the following reinforcement schedules occurs while a person develops superstitious behaviour?

Accidental, non-contingent reinforcement. Reinforcement is not tied to any behaviour. Odd, ritualistic behaviour: Behaviours that the person was engaging in just before the non-contingent behaviour

Continuous

Fixed ratio

*Non-contingent

Variable-interval

Variable-ratio

Learning theories

  1. A 30-year-old man presented to you with fear of distance from home. The patient says he had panic attacks while he was away from home, which terrified him, as he could not get any help. Now he stays close to home to avoid such situations again. What would best explain his confinement to home?

The best answer would be a) avoidance learning. Behaviours that are maintained by negative reinforcement. Escape behaviour is a two-factor form of learning (the organism learns to identify a stimulus that signals the initiation of an aversive stimulus). If the organism performs the target behaviour in the presence of a cue, the organism can escape the negative reinforcer. Two factors = discrimination learning (cue) and avoidance or escape learning. In avoidance learning, a subject starts emitting a response that prevents them from an aversive stimulus. In escape learning, the subject emits a response that diminishes or puts an end to an aversive stimulus.

*Avoidance learning

Escape learning

Negative reinforcement

Positive punishment

Stimulus discrimination

Learning theories

  1. Verbal or physical reinforcements that help the acquisition of the target behaviour:

The best answer would prompt. Prompts are verbal or physical reinforcements that help the acquisition of the target behaviour. Fading refers to the elimination of the prompts gradually. Shaping: rewarding behaviours that approximate the target behaviour—behaviours come closer to the target. Chaining: Developing a chain/sequence of behaviours in which each subsequent behaviour is contingent on what came before.

Fading

Modelling

*Prompts

Reinforcers

Shaping

Learning theories

  1. The gradual removal of the verbal or physical reinforcements which are given to help the acquisition of target behaviours in the beginning is:

The best answer would be fading. Fading refers the elimination of the prompts gradually. Shaping: rewarding behaviours that approximate the target behaviour—behaviours come closer to the target. Chaining: Developing a chain/sequence of behaviours in which each subsequent behaviour is contingent on what came before.

Chaining

Extinction

*Fading

Modelling

Shaping

Learning theories

  1. Rewarding behaviours that increasingly approximate the target behaviour:

Prompts are verbal or physical reinforcements that help the acquisition of the target behaviour. Fading refers to the elimination of the prompts gradually. Shaping: rewarding behaviours that approximate the target behaviour—behaviours come closer to the target. Chaining: Developing a chain/sequence of behaviours in which each subsequent behaviour is contingent on what came before. The best answer would be e) shaping.

Chaining

Extinction

Fading

Modelling

*Shaping

Learning theories

  1. Developing a sequence of behaviours in which each subsequent behaviour is contingent on what came before:

Prompts are verbal or physical reinforcements that help gain the target behaviour. Fading refers the elimination of the prompts gradually. Shaping: rewarding behaviours that approximate the target behaviour—behaviours come closer to the target. Chaining: Developing a chain/sequence of behaviours in which each subsequent behaviour is contingent on what came before. The best answer would be a) Chaining.

*Chaining

Extinction

Fading

Modelling

Shaping

Learning theories

  1. A therapeutic technique used for behavioural symptoms in patients with dementia combines positive reinforcement with extinction such that between two competing responses, we reward one behaviour while ignoring the other. This is called:

Differential reinforcement: Combining positive reinforcement with extinction. Reward one of the two competing responses. Reward one behaviour while ignoring the other behaviour. The law of effect: Any response followed by a satisfying situation is more likely to be repeated. Behaviours resulting in an annoying situation is less likely to occur. Primack principle: A high probability behaviour reinforces a low-probability behaviour. Ex. Video game-playing (high probability behaviour), working on the dissertation (low-probability behaviour) - playing a video game after 1 hour of dissertation work

Behavioural contrast

Chaining

*Differential reinforcement

Law of effect

Primack principle

Learning theories

  1. Because of problem behaviours, a mother brought her 5-year-old child with an intellectual disability. Which reinforcement schedule would be most suitable for the quickest response?

The best answer would be a) continuous. The establishment of new behaviour is most rapid with continuous reinforcement, administered after every desired or correct response. It is the most efficient reinforcement schedule for a new response and is the quickest to produce extinction. Maintenance of the target behaviour is maximised with an intermittent schedule of reinforcement.

*Continuous

Fixed-interval

Fixed ratio

Variable-interval

Variable-ratio

Learning theories

  1. Which one of these are effective because they are classically conditioned with primary reinforcers?

The best answer would be a secondary reinforcer. Primary reinforcer: any reinforcer naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger. Secondary reinforcers are effective almost like primary reinforcers because they are classically conditioned with primary reinforcers. For example, money, which is a secondary reinforcer, is associated with primary reinforcers, such as foods and drinks, clothes and so on.

Associative reinforcers

Conditioned reinforcers

Generalised reinforcers

Primary reinforcers

*Secondary reinforcers

Learning theories

  1. Which one refers to reinforcing a non-preferred activity with a help of a preferred one?

The Premack principle is that a preferred activity can help reinforce a non-preferred one. For example, eating a favourite food after successfully studying for set duration. The Overjustification effect occurs when external rewards weaken the intrinsic satisfaction of performing a behaviour. For example, getting paid for writing may cause the writer to lose motivation writing without getting paid. The best answer would be the Premack principle.

Chaining

Contingency

Law of effect

Overjustification effect

*Premack principle

Learning theories

  1. A person lost motivation to write articles as hobby after receiving monetary rewards writing for a newspaper for year. Before he worked for the newspaper, he would write as a hobby. Which best explains this?

The Overjustification effect occurs when external rewards weaken the intrinsic satisfaction of performing a behaviour. For example, getting paid for writing may cause the writer to lose motivation writing without getting paid. The Premack principle is that a preferred activity can help reinforce a non-preferred one. For example, eating a favourite food after successfully studying for set duration. The best answer would be d) Overjustification effect.

Chaining

Contingency

Law of effect

*Overjustification effect

Primack principle

Learning theories

  1. A 40-year-old man was detoxified from heroin use in the drug detoxification ward. However, when he went back to the company of his friends, he felt an extreme desire to retake the drug. Which one of these would best explain this?

The best answer would be a) classical conditioning. The company of friends is associated with these feelings due to long-term pairing with heroin use. Cue-exposure therapy is one type that helps the extinction of such associations.

*Classical conditioning

Operant conditioning

Spontaneous recovery

Stimulus discrimination

Stimulus generalisation

Learning theories

  1. A 30-year-old woman develops non-epileptic fits when she her mother scolded her. Later, her mother gave her excessive attention and care. Gradually, her symptoms worsened, and she started to develop fits more often even on experiencing minor stress. What best explains this?

Stress may be associated with the fits and so classical conditioning may be at work; however, the most obvious factor here is the excessive attention and care from the mother which acts as a reinforcer.

Classical conditioning

Negative punishment

Negative reinforcement

*Positive reinforcement

Stimulus generalisation

Learning theories

  1. A 35-year-old woman is admitted to the hospital with pain in various parts of the body. Her pain increases in the presence of doctors, and she starts shouting with pain when doctors surround her. What best explains this?

The best answer would be positive reinforcement. Doctors may inadvertently reinforce such behaviours by attending to patients shouting with pain. Some patients learn to shout to have the doctor’s attention.

Classical conditioning

Negative punishment

Negative reinforcement

*Positive reinforcement

Stimulus discrimination

Learning theories

  1. For which one of these is John Broadus Watson known?

John Broadus Watson was psychologist well-known as the father of behaviourism. The best answer would be behaviourism.

*Behaviourism

Functionalism

Mechanism

Rationalism

Structuralism

Learning theories

  1. A 30-year-old man is admitted to your ward for the assessment of refractory depression. During the assessment, he reveals that poverty is his fate. He will not start any work because he failed every time he took the initiative. He is showing:

The best answer would be learned helplessness.

Attributional deficits

Cognitive dissonance

*Learned helplessness

Self-actualisation attributes

The fight-or-flight response

Learning theories

  1. An infant identifies his father’s voice. A college student is no more awakened by his roommate’s typewriting late-night. A kitten avoids a couch after being punished for sitting on it. A rat learns to press a tiny rod for food when a green light flashes. A motorist drives at the speed limit when there is a police officer in sight on the highway. Which one of these exemplifies the concept of habituation?

The best answer would be, college student.

*College student

Infant

Kitten

motorist

Rat

Learning theories

  1. Among the reinforcement schedules, which one is most resistant to extinction?

The best answer would be e) variable-ratio.

Fixed-interval

Fixed ratio

Non-contingent

Shaping

*Variable-ratio

Learning theories

  1. Mike receives five dollars each time he wakes up in the morning without having a wet bed. Sam experiences nausea every time he uses alcohol while being on disulfiram. Lindsay gets candy from mother when she has been calm for one hour. Jack, rewards son for sitting quietly for ten minutes during week one, 15 minutes during week two, 20 minutes during week four, 25 minutes during week five. A rat receives a mild shock each time it tries to open the door of its cage. Which of these would be the best example of shaping?

The best answer would be Jack, who rewards son for sitting quietly for ten minutes during week one, 15 minutes during week two, 20 minutes during week four, 25 minutes during week five. Shaping: rewarding behaviours that approximate the target behaviour—behaviours come closer and closer to the target behaviour.

*Jack

Lindsay

Mike

Rat

Sam

Learning theories

  1. For extinction to occur, which of the following must be true of the conditioned response (CR), the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)? Case 1: The CR occurs after the CS but does not occur after other stimuli. Case 2: The CR occurs after a stimulus that is similar to the CS. Case 3: The CS and the UCS are repeatedly paired, and the CR gains strength. Case 4: The CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS, and the CR loses strength. Case 5: When the CR loses strength, a rest period is given, after which the CS again elicits the CR.

The best answer would be Case 4.

Case 1

Case 2

Case 3

*Case 4

Case 5

Learning theories

  1. Experiment 1: Blindfolding someone to see how long he takes to find a coin hidden in a room. Experiment 2: Deciding how long it takes a person to learn how to perform progressive muscle relaxation after watching videos. Experiment 3: Applying bitter nail polish to nails of children with nail-biting and finding how long it will take before nail-biting becomes undesirable. Experiment 5: Rewarding a boy that has nocturnal enuresis for dry nights with star charts and determining its effectiveness. Which one utilised classical conditioning?

The best answer would be experiment 3. The experiment involves both classical and operant conditioning.

Experiment 1

Experiment 2

*Experiment 3

Experiment 4

Experiment 5

Learning theories

  1. According to the learning theory of Albert Bandura:

The best answer would be b) learning occurs by watching others. Albert Bandura described observational learning, which is learning by observing others. Condition occurs vicarious, Bandura identified four key processes that are crucial in observational learning: attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. The first two—attention and retention—highlight the importance of cognition in this type of learning.

Cognitive function is not important to learning

Learning can occur by *watching others

Learning is purely vicarious

Learning occurs subconsciously

Motivation is the first step in learning

Learning theories

  1. What did Rosalie Rayner and John Watson demonstrate with their experiments on Little Albert?

They showed how fear can be a conditioned response by associating a white rat with a loud noise. Albert developed a fear of rats after several pairings. Later, he also developed a fear of other white furry things that resembled the rat.

Emotion can be a conditioned *response

Extinction can occur with exposure

Fear cannot be a conditioned response

Phobias occur because of displacement

Stimulus discrimination is central to fear

Learning theories

  1. On your advice, a mother of a 10-year-old child with an intellectual disability praised him every time he washed his hands. This is:

The best answer would be a) continuous reinforcement, in which every instance of behaviour is reinforced.

*Continuous reinforcement

Fixed ratio schedule

Primary reinforcement

Shaping behaviour

Stimulus acquisition

Learning theories

  1. A person has an allergy to pollen. He sneezes on exposure to pollen. However, during spring he often sneezes even when there is no pollen around. Sneezing on exposure to pollen is:

The best answer would be an unconditioned response.

Conditioned response

Conditioned stimulus

Primary reinforcer

*Unconditioned response

Unconditioned stimulus

Learning theories

  1. A person eats some street food for breakfast and then spend the morning at an amusement park. After a few hours later, he feels nauseous and regurgitates the food. The next she is passing by the same street food, he feels nauseated. What best explains this?

The best answer would be a) classical conditioning. Conditioned taste aversion occurs even if the aversive stimuli are not occurring at the same time. Humans are ready to develop such associations easily.

*Classical conditioning

Higher-order learning.

Latent learning

Observational learning

Operant conditioning

Learning theories

  1. In operant conditioning, what describes adding something to decrease the likelihood of behaviour?

The best answer would be e) punishment.

Acquisition

Discrimination

Negative reinforcement

Operant extinction

*Punishment

Learning theories

  1. A mother is trying to condition a child to greet her when she comes home. Every time she comes home from her work, she presents the child with a gift. The mother noted him greeting her in the past three days. This is:

The best answer would be a) acquisition.

*Acquisition

Discrimination

Extinction

Priming

Shaping

Learning theories

  1. Which term best describes rewarding successive approximations of a target behaviour?

Shaping is a technique based on operant conditioning that comprises slowly molding the behaviour by reinforcing responses that are increasingly closer to the desired behaviour. By rewarding behaviours that approximate the target behaviour, responses get increasingly similar to the target behaviour. (Powell, Symbaluk, & Honey)

Acquisition

Fading

Learning

Reinforcement

*Shaping

Learning theories

  1. Seeing a model being punished and then becoming less likely to imitate the model’s behaviour happen through:

Vicarious punishment

Latent acquisition

Latent punishment

Positive punishment

Vicarious punishment

*Vicarious reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. A drug user receives money every day when he stays off of heroine as a part of his contingency-based therapy. Which reinforcement schedule is this?

The best answer would be b) fixed-interval. The reinforcement occurs after a fixed-interval of time.

Continuous

*Fixed-interval

Fixed ratio

Variable-interval

Variable-ratio

Learning theories

  1. Which of the following is an example of instinct?

Instinct is unlearned knowledge that involves complex patterns of behaviour. The best answer would be a) baby seeking food by rooting and suckling

Baby seeking food by rooting *and suckling

Being able to guess the right answer

Believing that nudity is wrong

Teacher demonstrating algebra to students

Toddler who is toilet training

Learning theories

  1. A young girl watches her mother lock herself in a room, whenever she argues with someone. When the girl grows older, she starts to exhibit the same behaviour whenever she is displeased by someone. This exemplifies:

The best answer would be observational learning. In observational learning, vicarious conditioning occurs.

Gene-environment interaction

Instinct

Latent learning

*Observational learning

Operant learning

Learning theories

  1. Considering the principles of operant conditioning, when something aversive is removed to increase the likelihood of behaviour, it is called:

The best answer would be c) negative reinforcement.

Contingency

*Negative punishment

Negative reinforcement

Positive punishment

Positive reinforcement

Learning theories

  1. A naive opioid user watches his peer group injecting heroin with a shared needle. Initially, he is afraid of the consequences, however, he sees his peers doing the same repeatedly over time without noticeable consequences. The patient then starts injections with shared needles. What type of learning is this?

The best answer would be d) observational learning.

Classical

Conditioning

Latent learning

*Observational

Operant

Learning theories

  1. Linda experiences fear on seeing a specific lizard. John is afraid only seeing a brown lizard. Mike is afraid of seeing any lizard. Sam experienced fear when a lizard drops over his head. Lindsay reports previous fear on seeing a lizard is now lost. Which of these occurs because of stimulus generalisation?

The best answer would be Mike.

John

Linda

Lindsay

*Mike

Sam

Learning theories

  1. Which of the following statements best represent the work of Ivan Pavlov?

The best answer would be e) he established the principles of classical conditioning. Pavlov was a Russian physiologist (not psychologist) who observed classical conditioning while experimenting on dogs.

He demonstrated the principles of operant conditioning

He described the principles of observational learning

He designed behavioural therapies

He established the principles *of classical conditioning

He is considered the founder of behaviourism

Learning theories

  1. In classical conditioning, associative learning occurs between:

The best answer would be d) neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus and an unconditioned response

Conditioned stimulus and neutral response

Neutral response and a conditioned response

*Neutral stimulus and a neutral response

Neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

Learning theories

  1. A child tells a lie and is deprived of pocket money that day by his mother. He does this several times, finally learning that speaking a lie would deprive him from pocket money for the day. Which kind of learning is this?

The best answer would be e) operant conditioning. More specifically, this is negative punishment; that is, deprivation from a privilege to decrease a behaviour, that is speaking lies.

Classical conditioning

Latent learning

Modelling

Observational learning

*Operant conditioning

Learning theories

  1. A mother deprives a child of his pocket money whenever he does not complete his homework assignment on time. The child starts requesting his mother starts crying and continues to an extent of unbearable annoyance to get his pocket money. Eventually, his mother is annoyed and changes her decision. The mother is experiencing:

The best answer would be negative reinforcement. The child’s annoyance is the aversive stimulus, when she gives pocket money to the child, this aversive stimulus is removed.

Negative punishment

*Negative reinforcement

Positive punishment

Positive reinforcement

Reciprocal determinism

Learning theories

  1. Which of the following is best exemplifies the process of observational learning?

Practicing yoga after watching yoga. Latent learning may also happen while simply watching yoga, but that does not include the other steps of observational learning.

Learning exercise in a gym

Learning to speak German in class

Observing written German to learn reading it

*Practicing on yoga after watching yoga

Watching a yoga group in the park

Learning theories

  1. A dog is being trained based on the principle of classical conditioning, the initial period of learning is known as:

The best answer would be a) acquisition, which refers to the initial learning phase in conditioning.

*Acquisition

Latent learning

Primary conditioning

Stimulus discrimination

Stimulus generalisation

Learning theories

  1. What was the major flaw with John B. Watson’s Little Albert experiment?

The best answer would be a) it is unethical for a researcher to induce fear in a child. (Watson & Rayner) (Fridlund, Beck, Goldie, & Irons, 2012)

* Inducing fear in a child is unethical

Little Albert was much older than Watson reported

Subjectivity was involved

Watson did not consent Little Albert’s mother

Watson falsified most of his data

# Bibliography

Fridlund, A. J., Beck, H. P., Goldie, W. D., & Irons, G. (2012). Little Albert: A neurologically impaired child. *History of Psychology, 15*(4). Retrieved 3 8, 2022, from https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-01974-001

McSweeney, F. K., & Murphy, E. S. (2014). The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of Operant and Classical Conditioning. John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved 3 9, 2022

Powell, R., Symbaluk, D., & Honey, P. (n.d.). Introduction to Learning and Behavior. Cengage Learning. Retrieved 3 8, 2022, from https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=WkF8B-Ovl50C&pg=PA430

Watson, J., & Rayner, R. (n.d.). Classics in the History of Psychology – Watson & Rayner (1920). *Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3*(1). Retrieved 3 8, 2022, from http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm

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